Skip to main content

Top Menu

  • Informacje o agencji praw podstawowych unii europejskiej
  • Coopération
  • Newsroom
  • Cookies
  • Contact

Select site language

  • Български
  • Čeština
  • Dansk
  • Deutsch
  • Ελληνικά
  • English
  • Español
  • Eesti
  • Suomi
  • Français
  • Gaeilge
  • Hrvatski
  • Magyar
  • Italiano
  • Lietuvių
  • Latviešu
  • Malti
  • Nederlands
  • Polski
  • Português
  • Română
  • Slovenčina
  • Slovenščina
  • Svenska

Custom Topbar

Home

Search the FRA website

      • Work on rights
        • Wymiar sprawiedliwości, prawa ofiar i współpraca sądowa
          • Prawa ofiar
          • Prawa oskarżonych
          • Wymiar sprawiedliwości w sprawach cywilnych
          • Współpraca sądowa i praworządność
          • Bezpieczeństwo
          • Biznes i prawa człowieka
        • Równość, niedyskryminacja i rasizm
          • Dzieci, młodzież i osoby starsze
          • Osoby z niepełnosprawnościami
          • Przestępstwa z nienawiści
          • Pochodzenie rasowe i etniczne
          • Religia i przekonania
          • Romowie
          • Płeć, orientacja seksualna i płeć społeczno-kulturowa
        • Azyl, migracja i granice
          • Dostęp do azylu
          • Grenzen en informatiesystemen
          • Ochrona dziecka
          • Migracja nieuregulowana, powrót i zatrzymanie imigrantów
          • Legalna migracja i integracja
          • Handel ludźmi i wyzysk pracowników
        • Ochrona danych, prywatność i nowe technologie
          • Sztuczna inteligencja i duże zbiory danych
          • Granice i systemy informacyjne
          • Ochrona danych
          • Profilowanie niezgodne z prawem
        • Wsparcie dla systemów praw człowieka i obrońców praw człowieka
          • Karta praw podstawowych UE
          • Międzyrządowe systemy praw człowieka
          • Krajowe systemy i organy w dziedzinie praw człowieka
          • Społeczeństwo obywatelskie
        • Environmental and social sustainability
          • Climate change and environmental protection
          • Just and green transition
          • Business and human rights
          • Human rights due diligence
          • Consumer protection
      • Karta praw podstawowych Unii Europejskiej
        • Czym są prawa podstawowe?
        • What is the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights?
        • Preambuła
        • Tytuł I: Godność
          • 1 - Godność człowieka
          • 2 - Prawo do życia
          • 3 - Prawo człowieka do integralności
          • 4 - Zakaz tortur i nieludzkiego lub poniżającego traktowania albo karania
          • 5 - Zakaz niewolnictwa i pracy przymusowej
        • Tytuł II: Wolności
          • 6 - Prawo do wolności i bezpieczeństwa osobistego
          • 7 - Poszanowanie życia prywatnego i rodzinnego
          • 8 - Ochrona danych osobowych
          • 9 - Prawo do zawarcia małżeństwa i prawo do założenia rodziny
          • 10 - Wolność myśli, sumienia i religii
          • 11 - Wolność wypowiedzi i informacji
          • 12 - Wolność zgromadzania się i stowarzyszania się
          • 13 - Wolność sztuki i nauki
          • 14 - Prawo do nauki
          • 15 - Wolność wyboru zawodu i prawo do podejmowania pracy
          • 16 - Wolność prowadzenia działalności gospodarczej
          • 17 - Prawo własności
          • 18 - Prawo do azylu
          • 19 - Ochrona w przypadku usunięcia z terytorium państwa, wydalenia lub ekstradycji
        • Tytuł III: Równość
          • 20 - Równość wobec prawa
          • 21 - Niedyskryminacja
          • 22 - Różnorodność kulturowa, religijna i językowa
          • 23 - Równość kobiet i mężczyzn
          • 24 - Prawa dziecka
          • 25 - Prawa osób w podeszłym wieku
          • 26 - Integracja osób niepełnosprawnych
        • Tytuł IV: Solidarność
          • 27 - Prawo pracowników do informacji i konsultacji w ramach przedsiębiorstwa
          • 28 - Prawo do rokowań i działań zbiorowych
          • 29 - Prawo dostępu do pośrednictwa pracy
          • 30 - Ochrona w przypadku nieuzasadnionego zwolnienia z pracy
          • 31 - Należyte i sprawiedliwe warunki pracy
          • 32 - Zakaz pracy dzieci i ochrona młodocianych w pracy
          • 33 - Życie rodzinne i zawodowe
          • 34 - Zabezpieczenie społeczne i pomoc społeczna
          • 35 - Ochrona zdrowia
          • 36 - Dostęp do usług świadczonych w ogólnym interesie gospodarczym
          • 37 - Ochrona środowiska
          • 38 - Ochrona konsumentów
        • Tytuł V: Prawa obywatelskie
          • 39 - Prawo głosowania i kandydowania w wyborach do Parlamentu Europejskiego
          • 40 - Prawo głosowania i kandydowania w wyborach lokalnych
          • 41 - Prawo do dobrej administracji
          • 42 - Prawo dostępu do dokumentów
          • 43 - Europejski Rzecznik Praw Obywatelskich
          • 44 - Prawo petycji
          • 45 - Swoboda przemieszczania się i pobytu
          • 46 - Opieka dyplomatyczna i konsularna
        • Tytuł VI: Wymiar sprawiedliwości
          • 47 - Prawo do skutecznego środka prawnego i dostępu do bezstronnego sądu
          • 48 - Domniemanie niewinności i prawo do obrony
          • 49 - Zasady legalności oraz proporcjonalności kar do czynów zabronionych pod groźbą kary
          • 50 - Zakaz ponownego sądzenia lub karania w postępowaniu karnym za ten sam czyn zabroniony pod groźbą kary
        • Tytuł VII: Postanowienia ogólne
          • 51 - Zakres zastosowania
          • 52 - Zakres i wykładnia praw i zasad
          • 53 - Poziom ochrony
          • 54 - Zakaz nadużycia praw
      • Tools
        • EU Fundamental Rights Information System - EFRIS
        • Criminal detention database
        • Anti-Muslim hatred database
        • National human rights structures navigator
        • Case-law database
        • Charterpedia
        • FRA e-learning platform
        • Data visualisation
        • Equality data collection: promising practices
        • Fighting hate crime: promising practices
      • Publikacje i dane
    • About FRA
      • Who we are
        • Structure of FRA
        • Management Board
          • Management Board members
          • Management Board meeting documents
        • Executive Board
        • Scientific Committee
          • Scientific Committee members
        • Director
        • Management team
      • What we do
        • Research and data
        • Capacity-building
        • Advising
        • Convening people
        • FRA for children
          • What are my rights?
          • Where do my rights come from?
        • Areas of work
          • Multi-annual Framework 2007-2022
        • Work Programme
          • Archive
        • Annual Activity report
          • Archive
        • Projects
      • Working at FRA
        • Vacancies and selections
          • Previous vacancies
        • What we offer
        • Work-life balance
        • Application instructions
        • Seconded National Experts
        • Traineeship
        • Study visits at FRA
      • Procurement
        • Ongoing procedures
        • Closed procedures
        • Contracts awarded
      • Finance and budget
        • Financial Rules
        • Financial documents
      • Register of documents
        • Dostęp do dokumentów
        • Application for access to documents
      • Data protection within FRA
        • Records registry
    • Cooperation
      • Instytucje UE i inne organy
        • European Parliament
        • Council of the European Union
        • European Commission
        • EU agencies
          • Justice and Home Affairs Agencies Network
        • European Committee of the Regions
        • European Economic and Social Committee
        • European Ombudsman
        • EU CRPD Framework
          • Promotion
          • Protection
          • Monitoring
          • Review process
          • Resources
      • Państwa członkowskie UE
        • National Liaison Officers
        • National Parliaments
      • Rada Europy
      • Społeczeństwo obywatelskie i platforma praw podstawowych
        • Activities
        • Civic space
        • Platform library
        • How to register
      • Krajowe instytucje ds. praw człowieka, organy ds. równości i instytucje rzeczników praw obywatelskich
      • ONZ, OBWE i inne organizacje międzynarodowe
        • EEA and Norway Grants
      • FRANET
    • Newsroom
      • Media contacts
      • News
      • Press releases
      • Stories
      • Events
        • Past Events
      • FRA products 2026
        • FRA products 2025
        • FRA products 2024
        • FRA products 2023
        • FRA products 2022
        • FRA products 2021
        • FRA Products 2020
        • FRA Products 2019
      • Multimedia
        • Videos
        • Infographics
        • Podcasts
      • Speeches
      • Press packs
        • EU LGBTIQ survey - Press pack
        • Fundamental Rights Survey
        • EU LGBTI survey II
        • From institutions to community living for persons with disabilities: perspectives from the ground
        • Second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey – Main results
        • Second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey (EU-MIDIS II) Muslims
        • Together in the EU: Promoting the participation of migrants and their descendants
        • Second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey (EU-MIDIS II) Roma
        • Severe labour exploitation in the EU
        • Child-friendly justice – perspectives and experiences of professionals: Press pack
        • Fundamental rights at EU borders
        • Violence against women press pack
        • Jewish people’s experiences and perceptions of hate crime, discrimination and antisemitism
        • EU LGBT Press pack
        • Child-friendly justice – perspectives and experiences of children
      • Newsletter
    • Account
      • Log in

Main menu

Home
  • Work on rights
    Work on rights
    • Wymiar sprawiedliwości, prawa ofiar i współpraca sądowa
      • Prawa ofiar
      • Prawa oskarżonych
      • Wymiar sprawiedliwości w sprawach cywilnych
      • Współpraca sądowa i praworządność
      • Bezpieczeństwo
      • Biznes i prawa człowieka
    • Równość, niedyskryminacja i rasizm
      • Dzieci, młodzież i osoby starsze
      • Osoby z niepełnosprawnościami
      • Przestępstwa z nienawiści
      • Pochodzenie rasowe i etniczne
      • Religia i przekonania
      • Romowie
      • Płeć, orientacja seksualna i płeć społeczno-kulturowa
    • Azyl, migracja i granice
      • Dostęp do azylu
      • Grenzen en informatiesystemen
      • Ochrona dziecka
      • Migracja nieuregulowana, powrót i zatrzymanie imigrantów
      • Legalna migracja i integracja
      • Handel ludźmi i wyzysk pracowników
    • Ochrona danych, prywatność i nowe technologie
      • Sztuczna inteligencja i duże zbiory danych
      • Granice i systemy informacyjne
      • Ochrona danych
      • Profilowanie niezgodne z prawem
    • Wsparcie dla systemów praw człowieka i obrońców praw człowieka
      • Karta praw podstawowych UE
      • Międzyrządowe systemy praw człowieka
      • Krajowe systemy i organy w dziedzinie praw człowieka
      • Społeczeństwo obywatelskie
    • Environmental and social sustainability
      • Climate change and environmental protection
      • Just and green transition
      • Business and human rights
      • Human rights due diligence
      • Consumer protection
  • Karta praw podstawowych Unii Europejskiej
    Karta praw podstawowych Unii Europejskiej
    • Czym są prawa podstawowe?
    • What is the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights?
    • Preambuła
    • Tytuł I: Godność
      • 1 - Godność człowieka
      • 2 - Prawo do życia
      • 3 - Prawo człowieka do integralności
      • 4 - Zakaz tortur i nieludzkiego lub poniżającego traktowania albo karania
      • 5 - Zakaz niewolnictwa i pracy przymusowej
    • Tytuł II: Wolności
      • 6 - Prawo do wolności i bezpieczeństwa osobistego
      • 7 - Poszanowanie życia prywatnego i rodzinnego
      • 8 - Ochrona danych osobowych
      • 9 - Prawo do zawarcia małżeństwa i prawo do założenia rodziny
      • 10 - Wolność myśli, sumienia i religii
      • 11 - Wolność wypowiedzi i informacji
      • 12 - Wolność zgromadzania się i stowarzyszania się
      • 13 - Wolność sztuki i nauki
      • 14 - Prawo do nauki
      • 15 - Wolność wyboru zawodu i prawo do podejmowania pracy
      • 16 - Wolność prowadzenia działalności gospodarczej
      • 17 - Prawo własności
      • 18 - Prawo do azylu
      • 19 - Ochrona w przypadku usunięcia z terytorium państwa, wydalenia lub ekstradycji
    • Tytuł III: Równość
      • 20 - Równość wobec prawa
      • 21 - Niedyskryminacja
      • 22 - Różnorodność kulturowa, religijna i językowa
      • 23 - Równość kobiet i mężczyzn
      • 24 - Prawa dziecka
      • 25 - Prawa osób w podeszłym wieku
      • 26 - Integracja osób niepełnosprawnych
    • Tytuł IV: Solidarność
      • 27 - Prawo pracowników do informacji i konsultacji w ramach przedsiębiorstwa
      • 28 - Prawo do rokowań i działań zbiorowych
      • 29 - Prawo dostępu do pośrednictwa pracy
      • 30 - Ochrona w przypadku nieuzasadnionego zwolnienia z pracy
      • 31 - Należyte i sprawiedliwe warunki pracy
      • 32 - Zakaz pracy dzieci i ochrona młodocianych w pracy
      • 33 - Życie rodzinne i zawodowe
      • 34 - Zabezpieczenie społeczne i pomoc społeczna
      • 35 - Ochrona zdrowia
      • 36 - Dostęp do usług świadczonych w ogólnym interesie gospodarczym
      • 37 - Ochrona środowiska
      • 38 - Ochrona konsumentów
    • Tytuł V: Prawa obywatelskie
      • 39 - Prawo głosowania i kandydowania w wyborach do Parlamentu Europejskiego
      • 40 - Prawo głosowania i kandydowania w wyborach lokalnych
      • 41 - Prawo do dobrej administracji
      • 42 - Prawo dostępu do dokumentów
      • 43 - Europejski Rzecznik Praw Obywatelskich
      • 44 - Prawo petycji
      • 45 - Swoboda przemieszczania się i pobytu
      • 46 - Opieka dyplomatyczna i konsularna
    • Tytuł VI: Wymiar sprawiedliwości
      • 47 - Prawo do skutecznego środka prawnego i dostępu do bezstronnego sądu
      • 48 - Domniemanie niewinności i prawo do obrony
      • 49 - Zasady legalności oraz proporcjonalności kar do czynów zabronionych pod groźbą kary
      • 50 - Zakaz ponownego sądzenia lub karania w postępowaniu karnym za ten sam czyn zabroniony pod groźbą kary
    • Tytuł VII: Postanowienia ogólne
      • 51 - Zakres zastosowania
      • 52 - Zakres i wykładnia praw i zasad
      • 53 - Poziom ochrony
      • 54 - Zakaz nadużycia praw
  • Tools
    Tools
    • EU Fundamental Rights Information System - EFRIS
    • Criminal detention database
    • Anti-Muslim hatred database
    • National human rights structures navigator
    • Case-law database
    • Charterpedia
    • FRA e-learning platform
    • Data visualisation
    • Equality data collection: promising practices
    • Fighting hate crime: promising practices
  • Publikacje i dane

You are here

  • Home
  • Work On Rights
  • Environmental and social sustainability
  • Just and green transition
  • Fundamental rights and housing in the EU’s climate and energy transition
Cover with title and image showing elderly couple with blankets around their shoulders sitting in front of  radiator and holding a energy bill in their hand.
AdobeStock@Solarisys
29
January
2026

Fundamental rights and housing in the EU’s climate and energy transition

Just and green transition
Environmental and social sustainability
Making homes energy efficient and equipping them with clean energy can help the EU to reach its climate and energy goals. These measures improve living conditions and support fighting energy poverty, but they can also compromise affordability and displace low-income families. This report looks at housing renovation and clean energy installation programmes and wider EU climate and energy transition policies. It analyses their impact on fundamental rights. It finds that measures often inadvertently exclude people or risk exacerbating existing inequalities. Climate and social policies must comply with fundamental rights obligations. This report builds on FRA’s 2025 publication: Towards a fundamental rights-compliant European Green Deal.
Read Press Release
  • Read Online
  • Related
Export to PDF
Search inside this publication
  • Key findings and FRA opinions
    • Integrating fundamental rights into the climate and energy transition
      • FRA opinion 1
    • Strengthening fundamental rights safeguards in designing and implementing energy renovation policies
      • FRA opinion 2
      • FRA opinion 3
    • The lack of equal access to renovation measures impacts the right to housing
      • FRA opinion 4
    • Protecting the rights of tenants in energy renovations
      • FRA opinion 5
    • People confronted with housing deprivation are at risk of being left behind in the climate and energy transition
      • FRA opinion 6
    • Participation and stakeholder engagement in the energy transition is often a one-off exercise and is not inclusive
      • FRA opinion 7
    • Lack of transparency and information for complaint mechanisms hinder access to justice
      • FRA opinion 8
    • Need for integrated and systematic monitoring and data collection for a just climate and energy transition
      • FRA opinion 9
  • Introduction
  • 1. Access to energy and the right to housing in the climate and energy transition
    • 1.1 International framework on access to affordable and sustainable energy
    • 1.2 The link between the right to housing and sustainability
    • 1.3 Energy as an essential service in the European Union’s framework
      • 1.3.1 Addressing energy poverty to ensure health and an adequate standard of living
      • 1.3.2 Right of access to energy – including renewable energy – and users’ rights
    • 1.4 Energy renovations for achieving affordable and sustainable housing in the European Union
    • 1.5 Conclusion
  • 2. Fundamental rights in the European Union climate and energy governance
    • 2.1 Fundamental rights in the National Energy and Climate Plans
      • 2.1.1 Equality and non-discrimination in national energy and climate plans
      • 2.1.2 Gender equality
      • 2.1.3 Vulnerability and equal access to energy
      • 2.1.4 Access to affordable housing
    • 2.2 National Energy and Climate Progress Reports
    • 2.3 Conclusion
  • 3. Non-discrimination and leaving no one behind in the energy transition
    • 3.1 Equal access to renovation and energy transition measures
      • 3.1.1 Target groups and access criteria
      • 3.1.2 Tenure status and renovations: exclusion of tenants
      • 3.1.3 Support measures essential for ensuring equal access to the programmes in practice
      • 3.1.4 Funding is necessary to ensure access for people with lower incomes
    • 3.2 Energy poverty and attention to people in situations of vulnerability
      • 3.2.1 Risks and prevalence of energy poverty in the European Union
      • 3.2.2 Tackling energy poverty among people in vulnerable situations
    • 3.3 Conclusion
  • 4. Participation and stakeholder engagement in the energy transition
    • 4.1 Ensuring the right to information: transparency and awareness
    • 4.2 Participation and stakeholder engagement
    • 4.3 Conclusion
  • 5. Accountability: effective structures for fundamental-rights-compliant energy policy implementation
    • 5.1 Fundamental-rights-compliant funding and finances
    • 5.2 Monitoring and data collection
    • 5.3 Access to justice and complaints mechanisms
      • 5.3.1 Complaint and review mechanisms in energy renovation programmes lack consistency and transparency
      • 5.3.2 The role of ombudsperson institutions, equality bodies, national human rights institutions and other stakeholders
    • 5.4 Conclusion
  • Conclusions
  • Annex 1 – Methodology
  • Acronyms and abbreviations
  • About this publication


3. Non-discrimination and leaving no one behind in the energy transition

Non-discrimination and attention to persons in vulnerable situations are core principles of a HRBA. Non-discrimination is a fundamental right and a general principle of EU law (Article 18 and 19 TFEU, Article 21 of the Charter), underpinning EU law and policies – including in the energy and climate areas. Linked to it is the principle of ‘leaving no one behind’, which has been integrated into key EU climate and sustainability policies and underpins the European Green Deal and the fit for 55 package. It emphasises a ‘just transition’ to achieving net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 in a fair and inclusive manner, ensuring that vulnerable groups and regions are not disproportionately affected by the climate transition.

The energy and building renovation projects selected for this research are major programmes – often co-funded by the EU – contributing to reaching the climate targets in the respective countries. Many are complex with different strands, subprogrammes and changes in subsequent funding rounds (see Table 4). For example, in Belgium and Czechia there are several subprogrammes providing different types of support for energy renovations. The selected programmes are often not the only available measures, and other programmes may exist which cover different groups or beneficiaries. For example, in France the researched MaPrimeRénov’ programme does not cover social housing stock, although there is a separate programme to support renovations for tenants in social housing (éco-PLS), which was not included in the present research.

Chapters 3–5 mainly present findings of the in-depth research. The methodology is described in more detail in Annex 1.

Table 3 – Projects selected for in-depth fieldwork July – November 2024*

Country

Project name

Project description

Belgium

Zero interest loans (Rénopacks)

The programme provides zero interest loans for renovations to middle- and low-income families who own houses in Wallonia, to reduce energy costs, increase safety or adapt the house for disabilities.

Czechia

New Green to Savings (Nová zelená úsporám)

The project provides subsidies for renovation of detached houses and multi-apartment buildings to reduce their energy consumption. The programme also encourages climate adaptation measures, such as rainwater collection, wastewater reuse and green roof installations.

Estonia

Reconstruction grants 2022–2027

The project finances both the complete reconstruction of apartment buildings and, for individual apartments, the replacement of heating devices using renewable energy sources, or the connection of apartment buildings to a district heating network.

France

Energy efficiency bonus (MaPrimeRénov’)

The project provides subsidies to owners to support energy renovations including building insulation, heating, ventilation or energy audit work on detached houses or apartment buildings.

Germany

CO2 pricing for heat and transport

In 2021, the German Federal Government introduced carbon pricing for the emissions of transport, buildings and heating sectors. The government has also introduced specific direct measures to reduce cost burdens for households.

Greece

Energy savings in building renovations

(Exoikonomo 2023)

Exoikonomo provides subsidies for renovations and energy efficiency upgrades of housing.

Poland

Clean Air Programme

The first nationwide programme to subsidise the replacement of old heating stoves with clean energy sources and the insulation of single-family homes.

Romania

Photovoltaic Green House 2023

The project provides individuals with grants to purchase and install photovoltaic panel systems for energy self-consumption and with the possibility of giving surplus electricity to the national energy system.

Spain

Energy poverty (Technical assistance to local authorities)

The case study explored the technical assistance to energy poverty reduction initiatives provided under the EU Energy Poverty Advisory Hub in selected localities in Spain.

Sweden

Public housing climate initiative (Allmännyttans Klimatinitiativ)

This is a voluntary initiative of public housing companies in Sweden, aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions through installations for efficient and climate-smart energy systems, awareness campaigns for water and energy saving and other climate-smart solutions.

NB: Programmes reviewed in Germany, Sweden and Spain do not list households as beneficiaries and therefore are not included in renovation-specific comparisons, unless relevant information was identified. *Some of the programmes have undergone changes since the end of fieldwork which cannot be captured in this report.

In seven Member States, the selected projects and programmes provided funding for energy and building renovations to improve energy efficiency. In Spain the project explored local capacity building to address energy poverty, in Sweden the project involved a large coordination initiative on energy efficiency in public housing and in Germany the focus was on the CO2 tax and related relief measures.

The projects were analysed through a fundamental rights lens, exploring the following dimensions:

  • target groups: eligibility, impact, safeguards, gaps;
  • accessibility: equality and non-discrimination, barriers, gaps;
  • information and communication, including public perception and social acceptability;
  • stakeholder engagement and participation;
  • governance and accountability;
  • monitoring, data collection; and
  • overall assessment, promising practices and ways forward.

This chapter presents findings from FRA’s research regarding the equal access to energy renovations and support measures (Chapter 3.1). It further focuses on how vulnerable groups and situations of vulnerability are defined and addressed in the programmes, also specifically in the context of energy poverty (Chapter  3.2).


3.1 Equal access to renovation and energy transition measures

The revised EED (Directive (EU) 2023/1791), referring to the EU’s social objectives (Article 9 TFEU), highlights that the EU’s energy efficiency policies should be inclusive and should therefore ensure equal access to energy efficiency measures for all consumers affected by energy poverty (Recital 76), and stresses that:

Member States should empower and protect all people equally, irrespective of sex, gender, age, disability, race or ethnic origin, sexual orientation, religion or belief, and ensure that those most affected, those put at greater risk of being affected by energy poverty, or those most exposed to the adverse impacts of energy poverty are adequately protected. In addition, Member States should ensure that energy efficiency measures do not exacerbate any existing inequalities, in particular with respect to energy poverty.

Revised Energy Efficiency Directive, Recital 125.

A recent policy report of SGI Europe stresses that the affordability of energy during transition requires careful policy design. It calls on the Commission to improve affordability and inclusion in energy and housing, and to strengthen the obligation for Member States to implement and finance energy efficiency improvement measures as a priority among vulnerable customers and people affected by energy poverty.

Legal corner – Non-discrimination and the right to affordable and accessible housing in the context of energy renovations

The right to housing is recognised under international human rights law, and aspects of it are protected under EU law (see Chapter 1). Article 19 TFEU empowers the EU to take action to combat discrimination. The Racial Equality Directive (2000/43/EC) prohibits direct and indirect discrimination based on racial or ethnic origin in, inter alia, the areas of access to and supply of goods and services which are available to the public, including housing (Article 3).

The right to housing under international human rights law is an explicit element of the right to an adequate standard of living, and includes standards of affordability, habitability, location, accessibility, availability of services, security of tenure and cultural adequacy (Article 11 ICESCR, UN Committee for Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, general comments No 4 (1991) and No 7 (1997)). A self-standing right to housing is enshrined in the revised ESC (Article 31). Adequate housing is also an explicit element of the right of persons with disabilities to an adequate standard of living and social protection as enshrined in Article28 of the CRPD, and is necessary to guarantee the right to living independently and being included in a community under Article 19 CRPD. Access to housing should also be ensured in the context of the right of persons with disabilities to independence, social integration and participation in the life of the community as provided for in Article 15 paragraph 3 of the revised ESC. As the CRPD Committee highlights:

Accessible housing providing accommodation to persons with disabilities, whether they live alone or as a part of a family, must be available in sufficient number, within all areas of the community, to provide the right of persons with disabilities to choose and the possibility to do so. To this end, barrier-free new residential construction and the barrier-free retrofitting of existing residential structures are required. In addition, housing must be affordable to persons with disabilities.

CRPD Committee, General Comment No 5, paragraph 34.

Furthermore, provision of housing suited to elderly persons’ needs and their state of health or of adequate support for adapting their housing is also an element of the right of elderly persons to social protection to enable their independent living (Article 23 ESC). The Convention on the Rights of the Child in Article 27 also highlights housing in the context of children’s rights to an adequate standard of living and the related obligations of States Parties.

Ensuring equal access to renovation programmes and energy transition measures requires taking into account the specific needs of different groups at different stages of the programme’s design, implementation and monitoring. Barriers or exclusion criteria to access such renovation and energy transition measures deprive individuals of their right to adequate housing and hinder them accessing affordable and sustainable energy.

FRA’s research explored how equal access is guaranteed and implemented regarding target groups, eligibility and access criteria, financing rules and other specific design elements of the renovation programmes and related energy transition measures.


3.1.1 Target groups and access criteria

Access criteria for energy renovations focus primarily on technical aspects, such as type, status and age of the building, energy source or type of heating devices, without considering the specific needs of different types of households or neighbourhoods.

Most projects do not have safeguards in place to ensure that those in situations of vulnerability (e.g. single parent households, older people, people with disabilities, people with a migrant background) can equally participate (see Chapter 3.2). Often barriers accumulate. For example, houses occupied by low-income owners in rural areas without access to district heating – and in need of energy-efficient refurbishment – may lack financial means to insulate and replace their heating systems. In combination with a lack of targeted outreach and awareness raising, in practice many of these measures remain inaccessible for entire population groups (see Chapter 4.2). Furthermore, inhabitants in irregular housing or living in informal settlements cannot access the programmes at all.

[In the context of assistance for persons in a situation of vulnerability]: You can’t compare someone from a vulnerable, illiterate community with someone in central Bucharest who owns a villa, has a higher education, and a monthly income of 5 000 euros.

Romania, civil society.

Table 4 – Programmes’ focus, target groups and specific support of groups or safeguards

 

Programme focus

Target groups

Support to specific groups

BE

Housing renovation

Owners between the ages of 18–76 (in houses that are a minimum of 15 years old with the exception of disability adaptations)

Low-income households, people with disabilities

CZ

Housing renovation

Houseowners

Families with children, students

EE

Housing renovation

Apartment associations

None

FR

Housing renovation

Houseowners

Assistance for vulnerable groups

DE

CO2 pricing

All users of heating and transport

Tax reliefs, housing allowance

EL

Housing renovation

Houseowners

Low-income households, vulnerable groups, young people

PL

Replacement of fossil fuel heating systems and renovation

Houseowners of single-family houses

Low-income households

RO

Installing photovoltaic systems

Houseowners and religious institutions

None

ES

Tackling energy poverty

People in energy poverty

Low-income households

SE

Energy efficiency and sustainability in public housing

Public housing residents (indirectly, via public housing companies)

None

Source: FRA, Franet country reports (2024).

Some of the energy renovation programmes target specific groups (low- and middle-income groups, families), and some provide additional support or have specific strands to support low-income households and other vulnerable groups (see Table 4) – but these are always limited to houseowners. The subsidy level often depends on income, with low-income households entitled to greater support. There are very few dedicated measures addressing specific vulnerabilities. One example is France which provides a tax credit for the expenses of equipment designed for older people or people with disabilities. Programmes in Belgium and Estonia also include some dedicated support for people with disabilities (see Chapter 5.1).

There are concerns in Member States about the exclusion of older people from the benefit scheme, along with energy poverty among older people not being properly addressed. For example, the Rénopack programme in Belgium targets property owners with lower incomes, but it sets an upper age limit of 76 years for applicants, thereby excluding older people from participating.

FRA’s research confirmed that most renovation and energy efficiency programmes frequently exclude tenants, and they usually have no structured approach or safeguards to direct or tailor support to different applicants, including to people in vulnerable situations. Tenants may potentially benefit from the Climate Initiative in Sweden, which targets public housing, however vulnerable groups or tenants in vulnerable situations are not specifically addressed in the programme. The climate initiative is based on collaboration and the active exchange of experiences between Swedish public housing companies (Sveriges allmännytta).


3.1.2 Tenure status and renovations: exclusion of tenants

People with lower incomes are more likely to live in energy-inefficient housing – often of a lower standard – and experience or be at risk of energy poverty (see Chapter 3.2). Over 50 %of people with lower incomes live in rental housing, compared to 30 % for the entire EU population (see Policy context – Owning or renting in the EU).

At the same time, most programmes for the energy-efficient renovation of houses are open only to owners. As outlined in Table 4, they typically exclude tenants – who are often from the lower-income population groups – and lack sufficient safeguards to protect their rights. While tenants could benefit from renovations carried out by property owners, in practice the ‘split incentives’ dilemma is an oft-cited barrier in the context of energy renovations. It refers to the common situation where neither tenants nor landlords are incentivised to invest in energy efficiency improvements: tenants may not have the rights, resources and incentive to make major changes to the property they do not own, while landlords in turn do not invest in energy renovations as energy bills are paid by tenants.

Excluding tenants from energy renovation programmes – and a low uptake of energy renovations in rental properties – limits their access to affordable and sustainable energy and the right to adequate housing, and potentially violates the principle of non-discrimination.

At the same time, if renovations of rental houses are conducted, effective safeguards are needed. Renovations tend to drive property value increases and thus rental prices, which may have an adverse impact on tenants and access to affordable housing. If not addressed, this may create the risk of ‘renovictions’ – evictions due to sudden rent price increases resulting from housing renovations – and gentrification. This may undermine the efforts to effectively address energy poverty via renovations, as people in vulnerable situations and with lower incomes will be driven out of renovated houses to ones of lower standard (Grossman, 2019).

Promising practice – Promoting rent stability in renovations via landlord incentives

The ‘Solidary Landlords’ project (bailleur solidaire) offers landlords a zero-interest loan to renovate the property they rent and, in return, commit to placing the property under the management of a social real estate agency without raising the rent. The measure incentivises energy renovations of rental houses while including protection for tenants.

Source: Fonds du Logement de Wallonie ; based on Franet Belgium Country Report (2024).

The rate of energy-efficient refurbishments of buildings has been below 1 % for years in Germany. About half of all residential households still heat their homes with gas and one third do so with oil. The interviews in Germany underscore that the level of energy consumption depends to a small extent on people’s behaviour, and to a much larger extent on the energy efficiency state of buildings. In 2024, more than half of Germany’s population (52.8 %) lived in rented accommodation. This was the highest share in the EU.

Policy context – Owning or renting in the EU

In the EU in 2023, 69 % of the population were part of a household that owned their home, while the remaining 31 % lived in rented housing. The highest shares of ownership were observed in Romania (95 %), Slovakia (93 %), Croatia (91 %) and Hungary (92 %). In all Member States, except Germany, owning was more common. In Germany, 53 % of the population in 2021 were tenants, followed by Austria (46 %) and Denmark (41 %).

On average, in 2019, tenants across the EU spent 31 % of their income on housing costs – compared to 16 % for homeowners. For households with lower incomes (earning below 60 % of the median national household income), this number amounted to 39 %. 34 % of tenants in private housing and 31 % of tenants in social housing also reported poor insulation and/or energy efficiency in their accommodation as problematic, compared to 21 % of homeowners.

Source: Eurostat, ‘House or flat – owning or renting’, 2025; Eurofound, Unaffordable and inadequate housing in Europe, 2023.

In Belgium, Czechia, Estonia, France, Greece, Poland and Romania, only owners of the property are entitled to access the respective programmes. In Estonia, the programme targets multi-apartment buildings via apartment associations, which only include homeowners. The MaPrimeRénov’ programme in France focuses only on homeowners, but there are dedicated energy-saving subsidies for tenants, for example via MaPrimeAdapt’ (not included in this research).


3.1.3 Support measures essential for ensuring equal access to the programmes in practice

The technical and procedural complexity of the selected energy renovation programmes, the inaccessible and often digital-only application processes, the technical language and complex requirements often pose challenges to applicants, preventing them from equal access to clean and sustainable energy and energy-efficient housing. This Chapter analyses how equal access is safeguarded and enabled in practice in the implementing programmes in the 10 Member States through specific support mechanisms.

Advisors, local information networks and one-stop-shops are crucial in providing equal access to energy renovation and supporting applicants, also in the context of digitalising services, particularly for people in vulnerable situations. Consultants or representatives in local communities can provide personalised guidance, translate key information into simplified and accessible language, and hold informational sessions to raise awareness among specific target communities and help to remove barriers to accessing the programmes. While most programmes include some support mechanisms to inform and support potential beneficiaries, gaps remain, as these mechanisms are not always comprehensive and sometimes are under resourced and unable to provide support in a timely manner. The programmes in Poland and Romania did not have dedicated support mechanisms at all (Table 5).

Table 5 – Local or regional consultants established by the programme

Member State

Local or regional consultants or support organisations established by the programme

Belgium

Energy Counters / Guichets Énergie and local Energy Renovation Platforms

Czechia

Energy Advisory Service / Mobile Energy Advisory Service

Estonia

Regional consultants

France

Local advice centres, mobile outreach initiatives with local information points

Germany

n/a

Greece

Technical consultants

Poland

None (until 2025)

Romania

None

Spain

Energy one-stop-shops

Sweden

n/a

n/a = not applicable

Source: FRA, based on Franet (2024) country reports.

Application processes can further exclude. For example, the Romanian Photovoltaic Green House programme uses the ‘first come, first served’ digital-only application process, which favours individuals with strong digital skills and the technical knowledge to apply quickly. In several countries, interviewees highlighted that information and application processes are drafted in technical jargon, and it may be difficult for potential applicants to understand and navigate through the wide range of different and often complex programme packages.

The information and application process for the programme in Belgium is primarily available online, making it hard for individuals with certain disabilities or those with low digital skills or no digital access to access information about the programme. However, to support applicants, the executive agency for Rénopack, the Société Wallonne Sociale de Crédit Social, offers a toll-free hotline or energy counters and local energy renovation platforms (such as Liège Énergie and the CPAS of Charleroi) to assist citizens through administrative, technical and financial support.

Promising practice – Energy counters (Guichets Énergie) in Belgium

Energy counters provide information to visiting people about renovations, the loans and the procedures. There are currently 16 energy counters distributed across the Walloon Region and a team of 40 consultants ready to assist citizens with energy-related matters for their homes. They offer free, personalised advice on home energy matters, including the Rénopack. They also provide guidance on sustainable practices, renovation projects, regulations and energy aid.

Source: Wallonia énergie SPW.

In Czechia, the Energy Advisory Service and local action groups communicate about the programme and provide free consultancy services to low-income applicants and assist them in completing applications for the New Green to Savings Light programme. However, as reported by interviewed stakeholders, these organisations are often overloaded with work, which limits their availability to provide support in a timely manner.

Technical consultants play crucial roles in the application process and implementation of programmes. Involvement of technical consultants in the renovation process has been mandatory in Estonia since 2023 (see Promising practice – Technical consultants providing mandatory application support in Estonia). Technical advisors also play a significant role in Greece, providing information on Exoikonomo’s specifications and disseminating information about the programme and consumer loans. In France, MaPrimeRénov’ advisors may be contacted via a dedicated national telephone number.

Promising practice – Technical consultants providing mandatory application support in Estonia

A 2023 resolution introduced mandatory support from technical consultants providing specialised expertise and guidance in the application process of the KredEx programme. This kind of outreach has been shown to increase the programme’s accessibility and the awareness of the programme’s availability among the population. As the programme was also implemented in a predominantly Russian-speaking region of the country, programme information became available in Estonian, English and Russian. Regional technical consultants were put in place to assist applicants with lower digital skills in the primarily digital application process.

Source: Resolution of the Minister of Economy and Infrastructure (11 March 2023); KredEx; based on Franet, Estonia country report (2024).

The energy one-stop shops [4] See also One-Stop Shops for Energy Communities – Mapping service design attributes, synergies, and challenges.
in Spain provide technical assistance to municipalities under the EU Energy Poverty Advisory Hub (EPAH). One-stop-shops exist also in France as one of the several channels to access information (see Promising practice: One-stop shops in France).

Promising practice: One-stop shops in France

As part of France MaPrimeRénov’, 450 one-stop shops (Espaces Conseil France Rénov) that provide information and advice on renovations have been set up across the country. The one-stop shops were strategically set up in central information points in village and town squares in order to reach as many people as possible, offering free and personalised advice on the technical, administrative and financial aspects of the renovations.

Source: MaPrimeRénov’; based on Franet France country report (2024).

 In Germany, in the context of the carbon tax, consumers can consult advisory services, provided by consumer associations (Verbraucherzentralen) and the German Tenants’ Association (Deutscher Mieterbund). Citizens can also contact the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action (Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Klimaschutz) or the German Environment Agency (Umweltbundesamt) directly.


3.1.4 Funding is necessary to ensure access for people with lower incomes

A key aspect determining the overall accessibility of renovation programmes is the availability of funding and access to finance, such as loans and subsidies for reconstruction to become energy efficient. However, funding rules, including the level of co-financing or upfront payments or required guarantee, may in practice exclude those who are financially vulnerable. While some programmes foresee measures addressing such situations (e.g. low-rate loans, or state guarantees), access to them is often restrictive in practice due to the associated administrative requirements.

Policy context – Unequal access to financial services as an obstacle to participation in energy renovation programmes

The 2014 Directive on payment accounts gives people in the EU the right to a basic payment account regardless of a person’s place of residence or financial situation. According to 2021 World Bank Group data, in most Member States over 95 % of the population hold an account with a financial institution – with rates below 90 % only in Hungary (88 %), Bulgaria (84 %) and Romania (69 %). In comparison, FRA data from 2021 show that more than half of the Roma population (56 %) in 10 eastern and southern European countries do not have access to a bank account.

Source: European Commission (2024), Report on access to essential services in the EU; FRA.

Co-financing of renovations exists in Czechia: the New Green to Savings programme requires 50 % co-financing from the beneficiaries. However, an additional programme strand, the New Green to Savings Light introduces an upfront subsidy of up to 100 % of the direct implementation costs for specific categories of households, including low-income households with retirement pensions or third-degree disability pensions, along with households receiving housing or child benefits. A similar approach exists in Poland, where the Clean Air programme requires 50 % of the investment’s co-financing and low-income households are eligible for higher support. However, interviewees highlighted that the income criteria to access 100 % funding are highly restrictive.

If you look at a vulnerable household, I don’t know to what extent they will have any money to finance and pay for these renovations. Vulnerable households are always vulnerable. I don’t know how someone would suddenly ‘generate’ money to invest in frame windows or anything else. It’s very, very difficult, especially when someone is facing an objective survival issue, like making a living.

Greece, expert.

In Greece up to 75 % of total costs are covered, depending on income. The Exoikonomo programme also provides a prioritisation weighting scheme for low-income and other vulnerable households. However, the applicant receives only 70 % of the approved grant amount credited to their bank account, while the rest of the payment is paid within 60 days of the certified completion of the work. The required down payment of renovation costs is a major obstacle for low-income households. Also, despite the availability of subsidies and interest-free loans, practical access to loans is often limited.

[I]n this programme, the banks, although they are required to, did not provide loans to low-income households as outlined in the programme guidelines.

Greece, public entity.

In France, MaPrimeRénov’ support allows individuals to apply for a direct financial subsidy before starting renovation works, which can finance up to 90 % of the cost of the work for an isolated renovation act. A personal contribution of RON 2000 (approximately EUR 400) for solar panel installations establishes a major barrier for many applicants in Romania.

Promising practice – Offering state loans and guarantees for groups living in disadvantaged areas in Estonia

In Estonia, KredEx, a foundation set up by the Ministry of Economic Affairs, offers loans and financial guarantees with a priority to rural and economically disadvantaged areas where property values are low. It therefore supports economically disadvantaged groups in overcoming financial barriers when commercial banks are unwilling to provide credit, providing support when the association members may not qualify for bank loans or have the necessary funds for accessing the ‘Reconstruction grants 2022–2027’ project.

Source: Kredex; based on Franet Estonia country report (2024).

The Belgium programme includes tailored and individual support to reach out to applicants who need specific support (see Promising practice – Technical advice for vulnerable households in Belgium).

Promising practice – Technical advice for vulnerable households in Belgium

The Rénopack programme in Wallonia offers, besides loans and premiums for renovations, technical support to vulnerable households, helping them prioritise renovation tasks based on their financial situation, and ensuring their projects meet the criteria to qualify for premiums. The programme involves a preliminary analysis of contractors’ estimates to maximise energy savings and eligibility for premiums, protecting households from funding renovations that do not meet technical standards. The level of support is tailored to the specific needs of each household, ensuring flexibility and effectiveness.

Source: Rénopack programme; based on Franet Belgium country report (2024).

Research shows that access to funds to implement energy efficiency measures is often limited. A variety of tools and mechanisms are required to ensure that everyone can benefit from the energy transition programmes available.


3.2 Energy poverty and attention to people in situations of vulnerability

Energy poverty is a complex phenomenon, related to a lack of access to affordable energy, inefficient and poorly insulated buildings, and living in or being at risk of poverty in general. The EU recognises the need to address energy poverty (see Chapter 1) and obliges Member States to protect certain categories of people in situations of vulnerability in climate and energy legislation. As highlighted in the European Commission 2024 Report on access to essential services in the EU, access to energy is key to ensuring people’s health and a decent standard of living. It calls on Member States to finance energy efficiency improvement measures as a priority among vulnerable customers and people affected by energy poverty.

 Legal corner – Persons in situations of vulnerability – EU definitions

The EU energy legislation includes measures to protect certain categories of persons in situations of vulnerability, and in the context of specific laws sets out non-exhaustive criteria. There are three definitions which Member States may rely on to define categories of vulnerability in the energy policy context at the national level.

  1. ‘‘Vulnerable households’ means households in energy poverty or households, including low income and lower middle-income ones, that are significantly affected by the price impacts of the inclusion of greenhouse gas emissions from buildings within the scope of Directive 2003/87/EC and lack the means to renovate the building they occupy’ (Article2(10) SCFR).
  2. ‘‘Vulnerable households’ means households in energy poverty or households, including lower middle-income households, that are particularly exposed to high energy costs and that lack the means to renovate the building that they occupy’ (Article2(28) EPBD).
  3. ‘[The definition of] ‘vulnerable customers’ may refer to energy poverty and, inter alia, to the prohibition of disconnection of electricity to such customers in critical times. The concept of vulnerable customers may include income levels, the share of energy expenditure of disposable income, the energy efficiency of homes, critical dependence on electrical equipment for health reasons, age or other criteria’ (Article28 of the Electricity Market Directive– also used in the Gas Directive).


3.2.1 Risks and prevalence of energy poverty in the European Union

Energy poverty undermines the effective exercise of fundamental rights for those affected by it. Several indicators have been developed to measure energy poverty, with the ‘inability to keep the home adequately warm’ often used as the main proxy. In 2024, 9.2 % of Europeans were unable to keep their homes adequately warm, a sharp increase from 6.9 % in 2021 due to soaring energy prices and the cost-of-living crisis. According to JRC estimates, this number could be even higher, as at least 40 % of the EU population (around 180 million people in Europe) falls under at least one energy poverty indicator.

The highest risk is for people with low income (19.7 %), single parent households (15.1 %) and people with disabilities (13.2 %). These gaps persist over time: for example, single parents have been disproportionally hit by the price increases between 10.8 % in 2021 and 18.9 % in 2023 (Figure 1). According to the 2023 Gender Equality Index, women have on average a higher risk of experiencing energy poverty, particularly among those aged 65 and above and those with a disability. As highlighted in Chapter 1 of the FRA Fundamental Rights Report 2024, Roma and Travellers, migrants and descendants of migrants are also disproportionately affected by energy poverty.

Figure 1 – Energy poverty: Population unable to keep home adequately warm, in %

 

The figure shows the percentage of the EU population unable to keep their home adequately warm between 2015 and 2024, highlighting increased energy poverty among low-income households, single parents, and persons with disabilities.

Source: FRA based on Statistics for the European Green Deal, Eurostat database [ilc_mdes01]; [hlth_dhc140]

At the same time, energy poverty is often one of many dimensions of poverty and deprivation and may intersect with different categories or situations of vulnerability. People in the same household may experience energy poverty differently. For example, a house that is too cold (or too hot in winter) may disproportionately negatively affect children, older people or people with specific health issues. Energy poverty can be hidden – when people use less energy than they would need to meet their basic needs [5] See, for example, Eisfeld and Seebauer, 2022, and Meyer et al., 2018. .

The risk of energy poverty is often compounded by other related risks, also in the context of climate change. This includes, for example, heatwave exposure and summer energy poverty, and the related health risks and socioeconomic impacts. In its guidelines on Member States’ adaptation strategies and plans, the Commission identified people in and at risk of poverty and social exclusion, people with disabilities, elderly people, people with pre-existing health conditions, pregnant women, displaced people, socially marginalised people, exposed workers and children as among those at the highest risk of experiencing energy poverty.

Often, these individuals may also be negatively affected by ill-designed transition measures which can inflict social and economic costs and exacerbate existing inequalities. Minority groups, such as Roma, indigenous peoples, recent migrants, people unhoused or in irregular housing (e.g. living in shanty towns, without a formal contract, etc.) are often beyond the reach of the standard energy transition programmes, while at the same time are more exposed to the negative impacts of climate change, and are subject to exclusion and discrimination in many areas of life (see Legal corner – Equality and non-discrimination in accessing energy services –services – CHEZ Razpredelenie Bulgaria judgment of the Court of Justice of the European Union (C-83/14)). For example, as recent FRA Roma survey data from 10 Member States show, around 10 % of Roma homes do not have access to any kind of heating facility, and 3 % to electricity supply.

Perhaps the unfair aspect is that we didn’t first address the issue of citizens who have no energy access at all. (…) There are still 15 000 or 17 000 citizens living in unelectrified buildings.

Romania, expert.


3.2.2 Tackling energy poverty among people in vulnerable situations

Effectively protecting the rights of persons in vulnerable situations requires a comprehensive approach to tackling energy poverty and mitigating the potential negative impacts of energy transition measures. Chapter 2 highlights that NECPs insufficiently address vulnerability: the existing categorisations focus primarily on energy poverty and often overlook other, interlinked situations of vulnerability. Similarly, energy transition programmes in 10 Member States tend to target certain groups selectively and frequently lack adequate safeguards to offer meaningful support for all people in vulnerable situations. Addressing the root causes of energy poverty – such as through energy renovations and the adoption of renewable energy in housing – demands clear identification of vulnerable groups and tailored measures that meet their specific needs.

In Czechia, the ‘vulnerable customers’ definition, introduced via an amendment to the Energy Act No 458/2000 Coll. in 2023, refers to people who use equipment that requires a continuous supply of electricity, the use of which is necessary to maintain basic life functions. For example, bedridden people whose health or life would be at risk if the equipment were to be disconnected from electricity. Non-governmental institutions and the Public Defender of Rights criticised this definition as too narrow, noting that it fails to cover many people who experience energy poverty – for example, tenants who account for two thirds of energy-poor households in the country.

The national CO2 pricing for buildings and transport in Germany affects all end users of heating and transport fuels due to the increased costs of fuel use. A study by the German Environment Agency indicates that the distributional effects depend on factors such as the age, family status and place of residence of the end user, along with whether the property is a rental property, its energy-efficiency levels and the type of heating system in use. Households with below-average income are disproportionately affected, as they spend a higher share of their income on energy than above average-income groups. To mitigate it, several measures were put in place, such as abolishing green electricity levy under the Renewable Energy Sources Act, or the CO2 Cost Sharing Act which determines sharing the CO2 costs between tenants and landlords depending on the energy efficiency level of the building. Households with no or low income can apply for a minimum income scheme (Bürgergeld), which covers heating costs, including CO2 costs or housing allowances. At the same time, the rate of energy renovations of buildings in Germany has been below 1 % for years.

The most prominent example is somehow an older woman, living alone in the countryside in an old, detached house. She bought it at some point, her husband died, she no longer has a high pension, owns a property but often has a very low income. If the house is in a poor energy condition, one must heat it a lot and then the CO2 price hits harder […].

Germany, civil society.

In Spain energy poverty has been on the rise and the most disadvantaged households or low-income households often live in energy-inefficient houses. Tenants in the private rental market are disproportionately impacted by energy poverty. Research has identified other fundamental-rights-relevant intersections, such as single parents, people with low education levels, woman-led households, older adults and people suffering from health issues, along with the disproportionate impact on the migrant population.

The prevalence of energy poverty among the migrant population is higher than among the Spanish population. It’s not a very revolutionary discovery, right?

Spain, expert.

Experts noted local administrations’ limited awareness of cases of extreme energy poverty among people living in isolated settlements (infravivienda) with substandard and overcrowded houses (see also Promising practice – Energy counters (Guichets Énergie) in Belgium). One of the EPAH interventions did include addressing extreme poverty in the historical city centre of Lorca, where around 80 % of the homes visited by staff and social workers do not meet basic standards of habitability, safety or access to water and energy. Targeting intervention to these groups poses significant challenges at every stage of policy-making, however the previous National Strategy against Energy Poverty 2019-2024 mentioned the infravivienda only once, and the NECP not at all.

And then there are very extreme situations that are invisible. […] In this little bubble, we’re in, we imagine that the homes are like our own, where people are just cold.

Spain, public authority.

Interviewees highlighted the value of developing and tailoring interventions to local needs and with the direct involvement of the target populations. The Naturgy Foundation research in Spain highlights the crucial role of social services departments and third-sector organisations in tackling energy poverty, as they work closely with both vulnerable households and communities and collaborate with energy advice providers. However, in practice social workers face considerable challenges, including insufficient staffing, limited training and expertise, and, particularly in the third sector, precarious working conditions, which limit their capacity to address the populations in need. At the same time, experts highlighted that seeking assistance from social services can be seen as stigmatising, potentially deterring people from accessing available support – especially in the context of exclusion and low trust towards authorities. Experts emphasised that implementing a universal approach (i.e. one-stop shops) and avoiding stigmatising language such as ‘poverty’ or ‘disadvantaged’ should be a priority.

We prefer to talk [about] the right to energy than energy poverty alleviation.

Spain, civil society

 Policy context – the EU Energy Poverty Advisory Hub

The EPAH provides technical assistance to local governments in their efforts to tackle energy poverty and to develop local strategies and policies. Each selected municipality is matched with experts based on their specific needs and geographic areas, who assist in assessing energy poverty circumstances or planning, executing and monitoring energy poverty reduction initiatives.

Renewable energy communities are an important way to support people experiencing energy poverty and in vulnerable situations. Citizens, small businesses and local authorities facing energy poverty can come together to generate, manage and consume their own energy. A recent JRC study identifies providing affordable and sustainable energy services as a means to fight energy poverty.

Promising practice – Energy communities for vulnerable regions in Italy

The regions in southern Italy have the lowest incomes in the country. They are also significantly impacted by the increase of average temperatures and frequency of heatwaves, which leads to an increased energy demand for cooling buildings. The Energy and Social Communities project (Comunità Energetiche e Sociali) by the Con il Sud foundation is an initiative that specifically targets vulnerable communities in the southern Italian regions (Campania, Sicily, Apulia and Basilicata). The project facilitates the establishment of energy communities which enable citizens to actively participate in the production process and management of energy. As part of the project, citizens, in collaboration with third-sector organisations, install solar panels on community buildings, such as parishes, community centres and community kitchens.

Source: Berti et al., 2023.


3.3 Conclusion

The EU energy renovation programmes are often not available to all on an equal basis, and in practice, they exclude tenants, people on low incomes, older people, people with disabilities or without digital access, and other people in vulnerable situations. Eligibility rules and criteria focused on technical aspects of the building and property ownership, complex digital-only application processes, coupled with financial barriers, restrict access for those most in need. These shortcomings risk deepening existing inequalities and undermining the fair distribution of benefits from the energy transition, with potential negative effects on the enjoyment of the right to housing and the right to non-discrimination. A rights-based approach to energy renovations is essential to ensure that everyone can benefit and that no one is left behind.

2. Fundamental rights in the European Union climate and energy governance4. Participation and stakeholder engagement in the energy transition
Related
Planting a seedling
lovelyday12 / Adobestock
Report / Paper / Summary
Climate change and environmental protection
Business and human rights
Environmental and social sustainability
15
January
2025

Towards a fundamental rights-compliant European Green Deal

Climate change affects the daily lives of everyone in the EU and has significant environmental, economic, social and health impacts. To tackle this, the European Green Deal was adopted in 2019. This report examines the Green Deal from a fundamental rights perspective, with the aim of protecting the right to a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment for all. It highlights the lack of fundamental rights in EU climate policy and the need to incorporate these rights into future legislation. It also considers how applying a human-rights-based approach to climate policy could support a fair and inclusive transition.
Read news item
Informacje o Agencji Praw Podstawowych Unii Europejskiej

Dowiedz się więcej na temat Agencji i jej działalności.

  • Informacje o Agencji Praw Podstawowych Unii Europejskiej
  • Karta Praw Podstawowych Unii Europejskiej
  • Dokąd zgłosić się o pomoc.
  • Aktualności
  • Zapisz się, aby otrzymywać wiadomości na bieżąco
Napisz do nas
Address
European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights
Schwarzenbergplatz 11
A-1040 Vienna, Austria
E-mail
Skontaktuj się z nami
Newsletter
Zapisz się, aby otrzymywać wiadomości na bieżąco
  • Facebook
  • Twitter
  • LinkedIn
  • YouTube
  • Newsletter
  • E-mail
  • RSS

© European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2007-2026

  • About this website
  • Legal notice
  • Cookies
  • Data Protection
  • Accessibility