Fundamental rights and housing in the EU’s climate and energy transition
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Key findings and FRA opinions
- Integrating fundamental rights into the climate and energy transition
- Strengthening fundamental rights safeguards in designing and implementing energy renovation policies
- The lack of equal access to renovation measures impacts the right to housing
- Protecting the rights of tenants in energy renovations
- People confronted with housing deprivation are at risk of being left behind in the climate and energy transition
- Participation and stakeholder engagement in the energy transition is often a one-off exercise and is not inclusive
- Lack of transparency and information for complaint mechanisms hinder access to justice
- Need for integrated and systematic monitoring and data collection for a just climate and energy transition
- Introduction
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1. Access to energy and the right to housing in the climate and energy transition
- 1.1 International framework on access to affordable and sustainable energy
- 1.2 The link between the right to housing and sustainability
- 1.3 Energy as an essential service in the European Union’s framework
- 1.4 Energy renovations for achieving affordable and sustainable housing in the European Union
- 1.5 Conclusion
- 2. Fundamental rights in the European Union climate and energy governance
- 3. Non-discrimination and leaving no one behind in the energy transition
- 4. Participation and stakeholder engagement in the energy transition
- 5. Accountability: effective structures for fundamental-rights-compliant energy policy implementation
- Conclusions
- Annex 1 – Methodology
- Acronyms and abbreviations
- About this publication
Non-discrimination and attention to persons in vulnerable situations are core principles of a HRBA. Non-discrimination is a fundamental right and a general principle of EU law (Article 18 and 19 TFEU, Article 21 of the Charter), underpinning EU law and policies – including in the energy and climate areas. Linked to it is the principle of ‘leaving no one behind’, which has been integrated into key EU climate and sustainability policies and underpins the European Green Deal and the fit for 55 package. It emphasises a ‘just transition’ to achieving net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 in a fair and inclusive manner, ensuring that vulnerable groups and regions are not disproportionately affected by the climate transition.
The energy and building renovation projects selected for this research are major programmes – often co-funded by the EU – contributing to reaching the climate targets in the respective countries. Many are complex with different strands, subprogrammes and changes in subsequent funding rounds (see Table 4). For example, in Belgium and Czechia there are several subprogrammes providing different types of support for energy renovations. The selected programmes are often not the only available measures, and other programmes may exist which cover different groups or beneficiaries. For example, in France the researched MaPrimeRénov’ programme does not cover social housing stock, although there is a separate programme to support renovations for tenants in social housing (éco-PLS), which was not included in the present research.
Chapters 3–5 mainly present findings of the in-depth research. The methodology is described in more detail in Annex 1.
Table 3 – Projects selected for in-depth fieldwork July – November 2024*
|
Country |
Project name |
Project description |
|
Belgium |
Zero interest loans (Rénopacks) |
The programme provides zero interest loans for renovations to middle- and low-income families who own houses in Wallonia, to reduce energy costs, increase safety or adapt the house for disabilities. |
|
Czechia |
New Green to Savings (Nová zelená úsporám) |
The project provides subsidies for renovation of detached houses and multi-apartment buildings to reduce their energy consumption. The programme also encourages climate adaptation measures, such as rainwater collection, wastewater reuse and green roof installations. |
|
Estonia |
The project finances both the complete reconstruction of apartment buildings and, for individual apartments, the replacement of heating devices using renewable energy sources, or the connection of apartment buildings to a district heating network. |
|
|
France |
Energy efficiency bonus (MaPrimeRénov’) |
The project provides subsidies to owners to support energy renovations including building insulation, heating, ventilation or energy audit work on detached houses or apartment buildings. |
|
Germany |
CO2 pricing for heat and transport |
In 2021, the German Federal Government introduced carbon pricing for the emissions of transport, buildings and heating sectors. The government has also introduced specific direct measures to reduce cost burdens for households. |
|
Greece |
Energy savings in building renovations (Exoikonomo 2023) |
Exoikonomo provides subsidies for renovations and energy efficiency upgrades of housing. |
|
Poland |
The first nationwide programme to subsidise the replacement of old heating stoves with clean energy sources and the insulation of single-family homes. |
|
|
Romania |
The project provides individuals with grants to purchase and install photovoltaic panel systems for energy self-consumption and with the possibility of giving surplus electricity to the national energy system. |
|
|
Spain |
Energy poverty (Technical assistance to local authorities) |
The case study explored the technical assistance to energy poverty reduction initiatives provided under the EU Energy Poverty Advisory Hub in selected localities in Spain. |
|
Sweden |
Public housing climate initiative (Allmännyttans Klimatinitiativ) |
This is a voluntary initiative of public housing companies in Sweden, aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions through installations for efficient and climate-smart energy systems, awareness campaigns for water and energy saving and other climate-smart solutions. |
NB: Programmes reviewed in Germany, Sweden and Spain do not list households as beneficiaries and therefore are not included in renovation-specific comparisons, unless relevant information was identified. *Some of the programmes have undergone changes since the end of fieldwork which cannot be captured in this report.
In seven Member States, the selected projects and programmes provided funding for energy and building renovations to improve energy efficiency. In Spain the project explored local capacity building to address energy poverty, in Sweden the project involved a large coordination initiative on energy efficiency in public housing and in Germany the focus was on the CO2 tax and related relief measures.
The projects were analysed through a fundamental rights lens, exploring the following dimensions:
- target groups: eligibility, impact, safeguards, gaps;
- accessibility: equality and non-discrimination, barriers, gaps;
- information and communication, including public perception and social acceptability;
- stakeholder engagement and participation;
- governance and accountability;
- monitoring, data collection; and
- overall assessment, promising practices and ways forward.
This chapter presents findings from FRA’s research regarding the equal access to energy renovations and support measures (Chapter 3.1). It further focuses on how vulnerable groups and situations of vulnerability are defined and addressed in the programmes, also specifically in the context of energy poverty (Chapter 3.2).
The revised EED (Directive (EU) 2023/1791), referring to the EU’s social objectives (Article 9 TFEU), highlights that the EU’s energy efficiency policies should be inclusive and should therefore ensure equal access to energy efficiency measures for all consumers affected by energy poverty (Recital 76), and stresses that:
Member States should empower and protect all people equally, irrespective of sex, gender, age, disability, race or ethnic origin, sexual orientation, religion or belief, and ensure that those most affected, those put at greater risk of being affected by energy poverty, or those most exposed to the adverse impacts of energy poverty are adequately protected. In addition, Member States should ensure that energy efficiency measures do not exacerbate any existing inequalities, in particular with respect to energy poverty.
Revised Energy Efficiency Directive, Recital 125.
A recent policy report of SGI Europe stresses that the affordability of energy during transition requires careful policy design. It calls on the Commission to improve affordability and inclusion in energy and housing, and to strengthen the obligation for Member States to implement and finance energy efficiency improvement measures as a priority among vulnerable customers and people affected by energy poverty.
Ensuring equal access to renovation programmes and energy transition measures requires taking into account the specific needs of different groups at different stages of the programme’s design, implementation and monitoring. Barriers or exclusion criteria to access such renovation and energy transition measures deprive individuals of their right to adequate housing and hinder them accessing affordable and sustainable energy.
FRA’s research explored how equal access is guaranteed and implemented regarding target groups, eligibility and access criteria, financing rules and other specific design elements of the renovation programmes and related energy transition measures.
Access criteria for energy renovations focus primarily on technical aspects, such as type, status and age of the building, energy source or type of heating devices, without considering the specific needs of different types of households or neighbourhoods.
Most projects do not have safeguards in place to ensure that those in situations of vulnerability (e.g. single parent households, older people, people with disabilities, people with a migrant background) can equally participate (see Chapter 3.2). Often barriers accumulate. For example, houses occupied by low-income owners in rural areas without access to district heating – and in need of energy-efficient refurbishment – may lack financial means to insulate and replace their heating systems. In combination with a lack of targeted outreach and awareness raising, in practice many of these measures remain inaccessible for entire population groups (see Chapter 4.2). Furthermore, inhabitants in irregular housing or living in informal settlements cannot access the programmes at all.
[In the context of assistance for persons in a situation of vulnerability]: You can’t compare someone from a vulnerable, illiterate community with someone in central Bucharest who owns a villa, has a higher education, and a monthly income of 5 000 euros.
Romania, civil society.
Table 4 – Programmes’ focus, target groups and specific support of groups or safeguards
|
|
Programme focus |
Target groups |
Support to specific groups |
|
BE |
Housing renovation |
Owners between the ages of 18–76 (in houses that are a minimum of 15 years old with the exception of disability adaptations) |
Low-income households, people with disabilities |
|
CZ |
Housing renovation |
Houseowners |
Families with children, students |
|
EE |
Housing renovation |
Apartment associations |
None |
|
FR |
Housing renovation |
Houseowners |
Assistance for vulnerable groups |
|
DE |
CO2 pricing |
All users of heating and transport |
Tax reliefs, housing allowance |
|
EL |
Housing renovation |
Houseowners |
Low-income households, vulnerable groups, young people |
|
PL |
Replacement of fossil fuel heating systems and renovation |
Houseowners of single-family houses |
Low-income households |
|
RO |
Installing photovoltaic systems |
Houseowners and religious institutions |
None |
|
ES |
Tackling energy poverty |
People in energy poverty |
Low-income households |
|
SE |
Energy efficiency and sustainability in public housing |
Public housing residents (indirectly, via public housing companies) |
None |
Source: FRA, Franet country reports (2024).
Some of the energy renovation programmes target specific groups (low- and middle-income groups, families), and some provide additional support or have specific strands to support low-income households and other vulnerable groups (see Table 4) – but these are always limited to houseowners. The subsidy level often depends on income, with low-income households entitled to greater support. There are very few dedicated measures addressing specific vulnerabilities. One example is France which provides a tax credit for the expenses of equipment designed for older people or people with disabilities. Programmes in Belgium and Estonia also include some dedicated support for people with disabilities (see Chapter 5.1).
There are concerns in Member States about the exclusion of older people from the benefit scheme, along with energy poverty among older people not being properly addressed. For example, the Rénopack programme in Belgium targets property owners with lower incomes, but it sets an upper age limit of 76 years for applicants, thereby excluding older people from participating.
FRA’s research confirmed that most renovation and energy efficiency programmes frequently exclude tenants, and they usually have no structured approach or safeguards to direct or tailor support to different applicants, including to people in vulnerable situations. Tenants may potentially benefit from the Climate Initiative in Sweden, which targets public housing, however vulnerable groups or tenants in vulnerable situations are not specifically addressed in the programme. The climate initiative is based on collaboration and the active exchange of experiences between Swedish public housing companies (Sveriges allmännytta).
People with lower incomes are more likely to live in energy-inefficient housing – often of a lower standard – and experience or be at risk of energy poverty (see Chapter 3.2). Over 50 %of people with lower incomes live in rental housing, compared to 30 % for the entire EU population (see Policy context – Owning or renting in the EU).
At the same time, most programmes for the energy-efficient renovation of houses are open only to owners. As outlined in Table 4, they typically exclude tenants – who are often from the lower-income population groups – and lack sufficient safeguards to protect their rights. While tenants could benefit from renovations carried out by property owners, in practice the ‘split incentives’ dilemma is an oft-cited barrier in the context of energy renovations. It refers to the common situation where neither tenants nor landlords are incentivised to invest in energy efficiency improvements: tenants may not have the rights, resources and incentive to make major changes to the property they do not own, while landlords in turn do not invest in energy renovations as energy bills are paid by tenants.
Excluding tenants from energy renovation programmes – and a low uptake of energy renovations in rental properties – limits their access to affordable and sustainable energy and the right to adequate housing, and potentially violates the principle of non-discrimination.
At the same time, if renovations of rental houses are conducted, effective safeguards are needed. Renovations tend to drive property value increases and thus rental prices, which may have an adverse impact on tenants and access to affordable housing. If not addressed, this may create the risk of ‘renovictions’ – evictions due to sudden rent price increases resulting from housing renovations – and gentrification. This may undermine the efforts to effectively address energy poverty via renovations, as people in vulnerable situations and with lower incomes will be driven out of renovated houses to ones of lower standard (Grossman, 2019).
The rate of energy-efficient refurbishments of buildings has been below 1 % for years in Germany. About half of all residential households still heat their homes with gas and one third do so with oil. The interviews in Germany underscore that the level of energy consumption depends to a small extent on people’s behaviour, and to a much larger extent on the energy efficiency state of buildings. In 2024, more than half of Germany’s population (52.8 %) lived in rented accommodation. This was the highest share in the EU.
In Belgium, Czechia, Estonia, France, Greece, Poland and Romania, only owners of the property are entitled to access the respective programmes. In Estonia, the programme targets multi-apartment buildings via apartment associations, which only include homeowners. The MaPrimeRénov’ programme in France focuses only on homeowners, but there are dedicated energy-saving subsidies for tenants, for example via MaPrimeAdapt’ (not included in this research).
The technical and procedural complexity of the selected energy renovation programmes, the inaccessible and often digital-only application processes, the technical language and complex requirements often pose challenges to applicants, preventing them from equal access to clean and sustainable energy and energy-efficient housing. This Chapter analyses how equal access is safeguarded and enabled in practice in the implementing programmes in the 10 Member States through specific support mechanisms.
Advisors, local information networks and one-stop-shops are crucial in providing equal access to energy renovation and supporting applicants, also in the context of digitalising services, particularly for people in vulnerable situations. Consultants or representatives in local communities can provide personalised guidance, translate key information into simplified and accessible language, and hold informational sessions to raise awareness among specific target communities and help to remove barriers to accessing the programmes. While most programmes include some support mechanisms to inform and support potential beneficiaries, gaps remain, as these mechanisms are not always comprehensive and sometimes are under resourced and unable to provide support in a timely manner. The programmes in Poland and Romania did not have dedicated support mechanisms at all (Table 5).
Table 5 – Local or regional consultants established by the programme
|
Member State |
Local or regional consultants or support organisations established by the programme |
|
Belgium |
Energy Counters / Guichets Énergie and local Energy Renovation Platforms |
|
Czechia |
Energy Advisory Service / Mobile Energy Advisory Service |
|
Estonia |
Regional consultants |
|
France |
Local advice centres, mobile outreach initiatives with local information points |
|
Germany |
n/a |
|
Greece |
Technical consultants |
|
Poland |
None (until 2025) |
|
Romania |
None |
|
Spain |
Energy one-stop-shops |
|
Sweden |
n/a |
n/a = not applicable
Source: FRA, based on Franet (2024) country reports.
Application processes can further exclude. For example, the Romanian Photovoltaic Green House programme uses the ‘first come, first served’ digital-only application process, which favours individuals with strong digital skills and the technical knowledge to apply quickly. In several countries, interviewees highlighted that information and application processes are drafted in technical jargon, and it may be difficult for potential applicants to understand and navigate through the wide range of different and often complex programme packages.
The information and application process for the programme in Belgium is primarily available online, making it hard for individuals with certain disabilities or those with low digital skills or no digital access to access information about the programme. However, to support applicants, the executive agency for Rénopack, the Société Wallonne Sociale de Crédit Social, offers a toll-free hotline or energy counters and local energy renovation platforms (such as Liège Énergie and the CPAS of Charleroi) to assist citizens through administrative, technical and financial support.
In Czechia, the Energy Advisory Service and local action groups communicate about the programme and provide free consultancy services to low-income applicants and assist them in completing applications for the New Green to Savings Light programme. However, as reported by interviewed stakeholders, these organisations are often overloaded with work, which limits their availability to provide support in a timely manner.
Technical consultants play crucial roles in the application process and implementation of programmes. Involvement of technical consultants in the renovation process has been mandatory in Estonia since 2023 (see Promising practice – Technical consultants providing mandatory application support in Estonia). Technical advisors also play a significant role in Greece, providing information on Exoikonomo’s specifications and disseminating information about the programme and consumer loans. In France, MaPrimeRénov’ advisors may be contacted via a dedicated national telephone number.
The energy one-stop shops [4] See also One-Stop Shops for Energy Communities – Mapping service design attributes, synergies, and challenges.
in Spain provide technical assistance to municipalities under the EU Energy Poverty Advisory Hub (EPAH). One-stop-shops exist also in France as one of the several channels to access information (see Promising practice: One-stop shops in France).
In Germany, in the context of the carbon tax, consumers can consult advisory services, provided by consumer associations (Verbraucherzentralen) and the German Tenants’ Association (Deutscher Mieterbund). Citizens can also contact the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action (Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Klimaschutz) or the German Environment Agency (Umweltbundesamt) directly.
A key aspect determining the overall accessibility of renovation programmes is the availability of funding and access to finance, such as loans and subsidies for reconstruction to become energy efficient. However, funding rules, including the level of co-financing or upfront payments or required guarantee, may in practice exclude those who are financially vulnerable. While some programmes foresee measures addressing such situations (e.g. low-rate loans, or state guarantees), access to them is often restrictive in practice due to the associated administrative requirements.
Co-financing of renovations exists in Czechia: the New Green to Savings programme requires 50 % co-financing from the beneficiaries. However, an additional programme strand, the New Green to Savings Light introduces an upfront subsidy of up to 100 % of the direct implementation costs for specific categories of households, including low-income households with retirement pensions or third-degree disability pensions, along with households receiving housing or child benefits. A similar approach exists in Poland, where the Clean Air programme requires 50 % of the investment’s co-financing and low-income households are eligible for higher support. However, interviewees highlighted that the income criteria to access 100 % funding are highly restrictive.
If you look at a vulnerable household, I don’t know to what extent they will have any money to finance and pay for these renovations. Vulnerable households are always vulnerable. I don’t know how someone would suddenly ‘generate’ money to invest in frame windows or anything else. It’s very, very difficult, especially when someone is facing an objective survival issue, like making a living.
Greece, expert.
In Greece up to 75 % of total costs are covered, depending on income. The Exoikonomo programme also provides a prioritisation weighting scheme for low-income and other vulnerable households. However, the applicant receives only 70 % of the approved grant amount credited to their bank account, while the rest of the payment is paid within 60 days of the certified completion of the work. The required down payment of renovation costs is a major obstacle for low-income households. Also, despite the availability of subsidies and interest-free loans, practical access to loans is often limited.
[I]n this programme, the banks, although they are required to, did not provide loans to low-income households as outlined in the programme guidelines.
Greece, public entity.
In France, MaPrimeRénov’ support allows individuals to apply for a direct financial subsidy before starting renovation works, which can finance up to 90 % of the cost of the work for an isolated renovation act. A personal contribution of RON 2000 (approximately EUR 400) for solar panel installations establishes a major barrier for many applicants in Romania.
The Belgium programme includes tailored and individual support to reach out to applicants who need specific support (see Promising practice – Technical advice for vulnerable households in Belgium).
Energy poverty is a complex phenomenon, related to a lack of access to affordable energy, inefficient and poorly insulated buildings, and living in or being at risk of poverty in general. The EU recognises the need to address energy poverty (see Chapter 1) and obliges Member States to protect certain categories of people in situations of vulnerability in climate and energy legislation. As highlighted in the European Commission 2024 Report on access to essential services in the EU, access to energy is key to ensuring people’s health and a decent standard of living. It calls on Member States to finance energy efficiency improvement measures as a priority among vulnerable customers and people affected by energy poverty.
Energy poverty undermines the effective exercise of fundamental rights for those affected by it. Several indicators have been developed to measure energy poverty, with the ‘inability to keep the home adequately warm’ often used as the main proxy. In 2024, 9.2 % of Europeans were unable to keep their homes adequately warm, a sharp increase from 6.9 % in 2021 due to soaring energy prices and the cost-of-living crisis. According to JRC estimates, this number could be even higher, as at least 40 % of the EU population (around 180 million people in Europe) falls under at least one energy poverty indicator.
The highest risk is for people with low income (19.7 %), single parent households (15.1 %) and people with disabilities (13.2 %). These gaps persist over time: for example, single parents have been disproportionally hit by the price increases between 10.8 % in 2021 and 18.9 % in 2023 (Figure 1). According to the 2023 Gender Equality Index, women have on average a higher risk of experiencing energy poverty, particularly among those aged 65 and above and those with a disability. As highlighted in Chapter 1 of the FRA Fundamental Rights Report 2024, Roma and Travellers, migrants and descendants of migrants are also disproportionately affected by energy poverty.
Figure 1 – Energy poverty: Population unable to keep home adequately warm, in %
The figure shows the percentage of the EU population unable to keep their home adequately warm between 2015 and 2024, highlighting increased energy poverty among low-income households, single parents, and persons with disabilities.
Source: FRA based on Statistics for the European Green Deal, Eurostat database [ilc_mdes01]; [hlth_dhc140]
At the same time, energy poverty is often one of many dimensions of poverty and deprivation and may intersect with different categories or situations of vulnerability. People in the same household may experience energy poverty differently. For example, a house that is too cold (or too hot in winter) may disproportionately negatively affect children, older people or people with specific health issues. Energy poverty can be hidden – when people use less energy than they would need to meet their basic needs [5] See, for example, Eisfeld and Seebauer, 2022, and Meyer et al., 2018. .
The risk of energy poverty is often compounded by other related risks, also in the context of climate change. This includes, for example, heatwave exposure and summer energy poverty, and the related health risks and socioeconomic impacts. In its guidelines on Member States’ adaptation strategies and plans, the Commission identified people in and at risk of poverty and social exclusion, people with disabilities, elderly people, people with pre-existing health conditions, pregnant women, displaced people, socially marginalised people, exposed workers and children as among those at the highest risk of experiencing energy poverty.
Often, these individuals may also be negatively affected by ill-designed transition measures which can inflict social and economic costs and exacerbate existing inequalities. Minority groups, such as Roma, indigenous peoples, recent migrants, people unhoused or in irregular housing (e.g. living in shanty towns, without a formal contract, etc.) are often beyond the reach of the standard energy transition programmes, while at the same time are more exposed to the negative impacts of climate change, and are subject to exclusion and discrimination in many areas of life (see Legal corner – Equality and non-discrimination in accessing energy services –services – CHEZ Razpredelenie Bulgaria judgment of the Court of Justice of the European Union (C-83/14)). For example, as recent FRA Roma survey data from 10 Member States show, around 10 % of Roma homes do not have access to any kind of heating facility, and 3 % to electricity supply.
Perhaps the unfair aspect is that we didn’t first address the issue of citizens who have no energy access at all. (…) There are still 15 000 or 17 000 citizens living in unelectrified buildings.
Romania, expert.
Effectively protecting the rights of persons in vulnerable situations requires a comprehensive approach to tackling energy poverty and mitigating the potential negative impacts of energy transition measures. Chapter 2 highlights that NECPs insufficiently address vulnerability: the existing categorisations focus primarily on energy poverty and often overlook other, interlinked situations of vulnerability. Similarly, energy transition programmes in 10 Member States tend to target certain groups selectively and frequently lack adequate safeguards to offer meaningful support for all people in vulnerable situations. Addressing the root causes of energy poverty – such as through energy renovations and the adoption of renewable energy in housing – demands clear identification of vulnerable groups and tailored measures that meet their specific needs.
In Czechia, the ‘vulnerable customers’ definition, introduced via an amendment to the Energy Act No 458/2000 Coll. in 2023, refers to people who use equipment that requires a continuous supply of electricity, the use of which is necessary to maintain basic life functions. For example, bedridden people whose health or life would be at risk if the equipment were to be disconnected from electricity. Non-governmental institutions and the Public Defender of Rights criticised this definition as too narrow, noting that it fails to cover many people who experience energy poverty – for example, tenants who account for two thirds of energy-poor households in the country.
The national CO2 pricing for buildings and transport in Germany affects all end users of heating and transport fuels due to the increased costs of fuel use. A study by the German Environment Agency indicates that the distributional effects depend on factors such as the age, family status and place of residence of the end user, along with whether the property is a rental property, its energy-efficiency levels and the type of heating system in use. Households with below-average income are disproportionately affected, as they spend a higher share of their income on energy than above average-income groups. To mitigate it, several measures were put in place, such as abolishing green electricity levy under the Renewable Energy Sources Act, or the CO2 Cost Sharing Act which determines sharing the CO2 costs between tenants and landlords depending on the energy efficiency level of the building. Households with no or low income can apply for a minimum income scheme (Bürgergeld), which covers heating costs, including CO2 costs or housing allowances. At the same time, the rate of energy renovations of buildings in Germany has been below 1 % for years.
The most prominent example is somehow an older woman, living alone in the countryside in an old, detached house. She bought it at some point, her husband died, she no longer has a high pension, owns a property but often has a very low income. If the house is in a poor energy condition, one must heat it a lot and then the CO2 price hits harder […].
Germany, civil society.
In Spain energy poverty has been on the rise and the most disadvantaged households or low-income households often live in energy-inefficient houses. Tenants in the private rental market are disproportionately impacted by energy poverty. Research has identified other fundamental-rights-relevant intersections, such as single parents, people with low education levels, woman-led households, older adults and people suffering from health issues, along with the disproportionate impact on the migrant population.
The prevalence of energy poverty among the migrant population is higher than among the Spanish population. It’s not a very revolutionary discovery, right?
Spain, expert.
Experts noted local administrations’ limited awareness of cases of extreme energy poverty among people living in isolated settlements (infravivienda) with substandard and overcrowded houses (see also Promising practice – Energy counters (Guichets Énergie) in Belgium). One of the EPAH interventions did include addressing extreme poverty in the historical city centre of Lorca, where around 80 % of the homes visited by staff and social workers do not meet basic standards of habitability, safety or access to water and energy. Targeting intervention to these groups poses significant challenges at every stage of policy-making, however the previous National Strategy against Energy Poverty 2019-2024 mentioned the infravivienda only once, and the NECP not at all.
And then there are very extreme situations that are invisible. […] In this little bubble, we’re in, we imagine that the homes are like our own, where people are just cold.
Spain, public authority.
Interviewees highlighted the value of developing and tailoring interventions to local needs and with the direct involvement of the target populations. The Naturgy Foundation research in Spain highlights the crucial role of social services departments and third-sector organisations in tackling energy poverty, as they work closely with both vulnerable households and communities and collaborate with energy advice providers. However, in practice social workers face considerable challenges, including insufficient staffing, limited training and expertise, and, particularly in the third sector, precarious working conditions, which limit their capacity to address the populations in need. At the same time, experts highlighted that seeking assistance from social services can be seen as stigmatising, potentially deterring people from accessing available support – especially in the context of exclusion and low trust towards authorities. Experts emphasised that implementing a universal approach (i.e. one-stop shops) and avoiding stigmatising language such as ‘poverty’ or ‘disadvantaged’ should be a priority.
We prefer to talk [about] the right to energy than energy poverty alleviation.
Spain, civil society
Renewable energy communities are an important way to support people experiencing energy poverty and in vulnerable situations. Citizens, small businesses and local authorities facing energy poverty can come together to generate, manage and consume their own energy. A recent JRC study identifies providing affordable and sustainable energy services as a means to fight energy poverty.
The EU energy renovation programmes are often not available to all on an equal basis, and in practice, they exclude tenants, people on low incomes, older people, people with disabilities or without digital access, and other people in vulnerable situations. Eligibility rules and criteria focused on technical aspects of the building and property ownership, complex digital-only application processes, coupled with financial barriers, restrict access for those most in need. These shortcomings risk deepening existing inequalities and undermining the fair distribution of benefits from the energy transition, with potential negative effects on the enjoyment of the right to housing and the right to non-discrimination. A rights-based approach to energy renovations is essential to ensure that everyone can benefit and that no one is left behind.