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  • Fundamental rights and housing in the EU’s climate and energy transition
Cover with title and image showing elderly couple with blankets around their shoulders sitting in front of  radiator and holding a energy bill in their hand.
AdobeStock@Solarisys
29
January
2026

Fundamental rights and housing in the EU’s climate and energy transition

Just and green transition
Environmental and social sustainability
Making homes energy efficient and equipping them with clean energy can help the EU to reach its climate and energy goals. These measures improve living conditions and support fighting energy poverty, but they can also compromise affordability and displace low-income families. This report looks at housing renovation and clean energy installation programmes and wider EU climate and energy transition policies. It analyses their impact on fundamental rights. It finds that measures often inadvertently exclude people or risk exacerbating existing inequalities. Climate and social policies must comply with fundamental rights obligations. This report builds on FRA’s 2025 publication: Towards a fundamental rights-compliant European Green Deal.
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  • Key findings and FRA opinions
    • Integrating fundamental rights into the climate and energy transition
      • FRA opinion 1
    • Strengthening fundamental rights safeguards in designing and implementing energy renovation policies
      • FRA opinion 2
      • FRA opinion 3
    • The lack of equal access to renovation measures impacts the right to housing
      • FRA opinion 4
    • Protecting the rights of tenants in energy renovations
      • FRA opinion 5
    • People confronted with housing deprivation are at risk of being left behind in the climate and energy transition
      • FRA opinion 6
    • Participation and stakeholder engagement in the energy transition is often a one-off exercise and is not inclusive
      • FRA opinion 7
    • Lack of transparency and information for complaint mechanisms hinder access to justice
      • FRA opinion 8
    • Need for integrated and systematic monitoring and data collection for a just climate and energy transition
      • FRA opinion 9
  • Introduction
  • 1. Access to energy and the right to housing in the climate and energy transition
    • 1.1 International framework on access to affordable and sustainable energy
    • 1.2 The link between the right to housing and sustainability
    • 1.3 Energy as an essential service in the European Union’s framework
      • 1.3.1 Addressing energy poverty to ensure health and an adequate standard of living
      • 1.3.2 Right of access to energy – including renewable energy – and users’ rights
    • 1.4 Energy renovations for achieving affordable and sustainable housing in the European Union
    • 1.5 Conclusion
  • 2. Fundamental rights in the European Union climate and energy governance
    • 2.1 Fundamental rights in the National Energy and Climate Plans
      • 2.1.1 Equality and non-discrimination in national energy and climate plans
      • 2.1.2 Gender equality
      • 2.1.3 Vulnerability and equal access to energy
      • 2.1.4 Access to affordable housing
    • 2.2 National Energy and Climate Progress Reports
    • 2.3 Conclusion
  • 3. Non-discrimination and leaving no one behind in the energy transition
    • 3.1 Equal access to renovation and energy transition measures
      • 3.1.1 Target groups and access criteria
      • 3.1.2 Tenure status and renovations: exclusion of tenants
      • 3.1.3 Support measures essential for ensuring equal access to the programmes in practice
      • 3.1.4 Funding is necessary to ensure access for people with lower incomes
    • 3.2 Energy poverty and attention to people in situations of vulnerability
      • 3.2.1 Risks and prevalence of energy poverty in the European Union
      • 3.2.2 Tackling energy poverty among people in vulnerable situations
    • 3.3 Conclusion
  • 4. Participation and stakeholder engagement in the energy transition
    • 4.1 Ensuring the right to information: transparency and awareness
    • 4.2 Participation and stakeholder engagement
    • 4.3 Conclusion
  • 5. Accountability: effective structures for fundamental-rights-compliant energy policy implementation
    • 5.1 Fundamental-rights-compliant funding and finances
    • 5.2 Monitoring and data collection
    • 5.3 Access to justice and complaints mechanisms
      • 5.3.1 Complaint and review mechanisms in energy renovation programmes lack consistency and transparency
      • 5.3.2 The role of ombudsperson institutions, equality bodies, national human rights institutions and other stakeholders
    • 5.4 Conclusion
  • Conclusions
  • Annex 1 – Methodology
  • Acronyms and abbreviations
  • About this publication



Key findings and FRA opinions

Climate change poses significant threats to fundamental rights and disproportionately affects people in situations of vulnerability, including those at risk of discrimination and poverty. Addressing climate change is therefore essential to ensuring the protection of a range of fundamental rights. At the same time, climate transition policies and measures may not benefit everyone equally and may even negatively affect certain fundamental rights. A human-rights-based approach (HRBA) to climate mitigation and adaptation policies is key to ensuring that fundamental rights are protected in the European Union’s (EU) climate and energy transition.

Energy savings and the energy transition lie at the heart of the EU’s policies to achieve climate neutrality by 2050 and to cut emissions by 2030 by at least 55 % compared to 1990 levels. Energy renovations are an important element of climate and energy transition measures for reducing energy consumption through the improved energy efficiency of buildings and clean energy installations. They contribute to climate mitigation and can help address energy poverty (see Legal corner – Energy poverty definition) and improve the adequacy and climate resilience of housing. In this way, they offer an opportunity to advance fundamental rights in the climate and energy transition – including the right to adequate housing – but they may also create negative side effects for fundamental rights and leave people behind in the process.

The evidence presented in this report shows that fundamental rights are not systematically integrated into the legal and policy frameworks on the climate and energy at the EU or national levels. Whereas applicable laws and policies often explicitly refer to principles such as ‘leave no one behind’ and ‘just transition’, references and safeguards to human rights are often fragmented and superficial. Policies and implementing energy renovation programmes and projects rarely address fundamental rights risks or outline concrete safeguards to ensure that these principles are applied in practice. This report calls for the EU and its Member States to adopt a HRBA to energy renovations and measures addressing energy poverty to ensure fundamental-rights-compliant climate and energy transition.


Integrating fundamental rights into the climate and energy transition

A number of rights and principles that should be protected and implemented in the context of climate change and in the EU climate and energy transition are enshrined in the European Union Charter of Fundamental Rights (hereinafter ‘the Charter’) and international human rights law. These include access to services of general economic interest (Article 36), non-discrimination (Article 21), the right to health (Article 35), environmental protection (Article 37) and the right to housing assistance to combat social exclusion and poverty (as recognised in Article 34 of the Charter). The right to housing encompassing access to energy is also guaranteed under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) and the European Social Charter (ESC). The Aarhus Convention grants the rights to access to information, participation, and access to justice in environmental decision-making.

The EU Regulation on the Governance of the Energy Union and Climate Action (the Governance Regulation) is a key instrument for a coordinated climate and energy transition in the EU, including through the national energy and climate plans (NECPs). Member States were due to submit their final NECPs by June 2024, followed by second of their biannual national energy and climate progress reports (NECPRs) in June 2025. The European Commission (the Commission) set out to revise NECPs for the post-2030 period as part of the possible upcoming revision of the regulation. The 2025 European Commission assessment of the final NECPs indicates that the plans, if implemented, are on track to achieve greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction targets. However, they lack in-depth analysis of the social and employment impacts of a just transition, especially for vulnerable households and regions, and they do not provide measures to address these impacts. The Commission’s assessment does not explicitly address fundamental rights or gender equality. FRA’s analysis of the final NECPs identifies significant gaps when it comes to fundamental rights.


FRA opinion 1

In accordance with the Charter and applicable international human rights law, the EU and its Member States should systematically integrate fundamental rights, including gender equality, when designing and implementing their climate and energy policies. The upcoming revision of the Governance Regulation should explicitly require Member States to consider fundamental rights risks and impacts throughout their national climate and energy planning, implementation and reporting cycle.

The Commission should provide guidance to help Member States effectively incorporate fundamental rights into their national climate and energy policy planning, implementation and monitoring, and to systematically report on them in the NECPRs.


Strengthening fundamental rights safeguards in designing and implementing energy renovation policies

EU law and policy including the Energy Efficiency Directive (EED), the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD), the Renewable Energy Directive (RED), the Social Climate Fund Regulation (SCFR) and the Renovation Wave provide a framework for implementing energy renovations and addressing energy poverty. These measures recognise housing affordability, sustainability, health and access to clean and affordable energy as interlinked objectives. The EED introduces a definition of energy poverty as a household’s lack of access to essential energy services necessary for a basic and decent standard of living and health. It indicates that Member States should implement energy efficiency and related energy savings measures as a priority among people affected by energy poverty, vulnerable customers, people in low-income households and, where applicable, people living in social housing. Several other instruments, including the EPBD and SCFR, explicitly target and address people in vulnerable situations, referring to definitions of ‘vulnerable customers’ or ‘vulnerable households’. Member States were required to transpose the directives into national law in 2025 and 2026. They also needed to submit draft social climate plans (SCPs) by June 2025 and draft national building renovation plans (NBRPs) by 31 December 2025.

At the same time, the abovementioned EU energy and climate change legislation does not comprehensively address situations of vulnerability, nor does it provide for concrete support measures. It is left to Member States to further identify people in vulnerable situations and to design relevant measures in the national context.

Research by the EU Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) reveals significant gaps in the legal recognition of groups at risk of energy poverty and in identifying or addressing their needs. Where safeguards and mitigating measures exist, these are often not evidence-based and not integrated into the actual programmes, leading to fundamental rights ‘blind spots’. While the EU legislative framework foresees certain safeguards, these are often not implemented in the national context. National implementation of EU climate and energy measures is an opportunity for Member States to introduce meaningful fundamental rights safeguards, taking into account the needs of people in vulnerable situations.

Furthermore, EU funding for climate- and energy-related measures at the Member State level, including energy renovations, is provided via different EU funds, which should be implemented in compliance with the Charter.


FRA opinion 2

Member States should incorporate fundamental rights safeguards when implementing the EU climate and energy law and policies, including in their SCPs and NBRPs. They should identify and address the potential negative impacts of proposed measures on fundamental rights, including on the right to housing.


FRA opinion 3

Member States should establish a comprehensive, rights-based definition of vulnerability in the context of their national climate and energy transition measures, including those relating to energy renovations and addressing energy poverty. They should identify the rights and needs of people in vulnerable situations and develop tailored action to reach and support them. This should be done in partnership with local actors and representatives of vulnerable groups and avoid stigmatising practices or language.


The lack of equal access to renovation measures impacts the right to housing

The right to housing is protected under international human rights law and requires that housing should be of adequate standard and encompass access to essential services, including energy. The right to housing assistance is also recognised in Article 34 paragraph 3 of the Charter. Adequate housing is an explicit element of the right of persons with disabilities to an adequate standard of living and social protection, as enshrined in Article 28 of the CRPD, to which the EU is itself a party. Furthermore, Article 36 of the Charter recognises the right to services of general economic interest and Article 21 of the Charter prohibits discrimination, including in the context of electricity services, as underlined in the CHEZ Razpredelenie Bulgaria judgment of the Court of Justice of the European Union (C-83/14). The right to housing and access to energy are also key to the effective enjoyment of other fundamental rights, such as the right to health, human dignity and the rights of the child.

Energy renovations generally have a positive impact on the right to adequate housing and access to affordable and clean energy. However, FRA’s research suggests that energy renovation and decarbonisation programmes often inadvertently exclude certain groups due to a lack of targeted outreach and support.

In general, the eligibility criteria of programmes relate primarily to the technical aspects of buildings, rather than the needs and different situations of potential applicants, especially those who may be at a disadvantage in benefiting from energy transition programmes or who may be negatively affected by such programmes. Information about programmes and application processes tends to be complex and be predominantly available online, potentially excluding people with lower digital skills, knowledge or income. Financing renovation costs and access to finance are further significant barriers, as many programmes require beneficiaries to co-finance or provide upfront payment, which can be challenging for those on low and middle incomes.

When such barriers are not effectively addressed, and when the design of the programme does not take into account specific situations of potential applicants, they are likely to exclude people and households already in vulnerable situations, such as those in housing with a poor energy performance, those with a low income, those with specific needs related to disability or health issues and those affected by other factors such as single parenthood and age. While such programmes help achieve national emission reduction and energy efficiency goals, they may leave vulnerable groups behind.


FRA opinion 4

The EU and its Member States should, within their respective competencies, ensure that people living in housing with a poor energy performance and without sufficient means to carry out renovations can benefit equally from programmes and funds for energy efficiency renovations.

The design and implementation of the programmes are key to guaranteeing equal access to programmes in practice. The definition of target groups, eligibility criteria, application process, funding levels and financial tools, along with communication and support provided to applicants at different stages, should be designed to overcome barriers. Member States should learn from promising practices, such as state guarantees and interest free loans, one-stop-shops, free-of-charge consultants and application support centres where individuals can receive direct assistance with application processes and support throughout the process of renovation. Member States should also build awareness of such programs in a transparent and tailored manner to reach different beneficiaries equally, considering the rights and context of the most vulnerable.

The Commission should consider issuing dedicated guidance on how to implement energy renovation programmes in a fundamental-rights-compliant manner, including practical examples and promising practices that could be replicated across Member States.


Protecting the rights of tenants in energy renovations

FRA’s research shows that energy renovation programmes typically target building or apartment owners, usually excluding tenants who often live in buildings with poor energy efficiency. Furthermore, programmes lack safeguards to protect tenants from negative consequences like increased rent or displacement following renovations. While examples of dedicated support for tenants have been identified, these are not implemented systematically or on a large scale across Member States. More than 30 % of the EU’s population lives in rental housing – among these over 50 % are people with lower incomes, who are most at risk of experiencing energy poverty. Protection of tenants and targeted measures are key to ensuring that people living in rental housing – including private, public and social housing – can benefit from the EU’s energy transition.


FRA opinion 5

Member States should ensure that energy renovation programmes and related measures safeguard the rights of tenants. Such measures could include dedicated programmes for the renovation of rental apartments and residential buildings, incentive schemes for landlords to undertake energy renovations while implementing safeguards to protect tenants’ rights and interests during the renovation process, dedicated support for tenants and programmes targeting tenants and individuals living in social housing, ensuring that they benefit equally from energy efficiency improvements.


People confronted with housing deprivation are at risk of being left behind in the climate and energy transition

Measures taken as part of the climate and energy transition often lack tailored safeguards to address specific vulnerabilities, potentially increasing existing fundamental rights risks and further exacerbating energy poverty. By facilitating more efficient energy consumption and therefore reducing energy costs, energy efficiency renovations can help address energy poverty. Yet without effective equal access to energy renovation programmes, the available resources and support cannot reach those who need it most, thereby resulting in negative consequences, including undermining housing affordability.

At the same time, people who live in precarious or informal housing (such as Roma living in informal settlements) are not only excluded from funds and programmes aiming to improve energy efficiency, but they may also face a lack of access to energy and electricity at the most basic level, for example by not having reliable access to electricity grid – a phenomenon sometimes referred to as extreme energy poverty. At the same time, they may be disproportionately exposed to the negative effects of climate change, such as extreme weather events.

These situations of housing deprivation and exclusion should be addressed in a comprehensive way in the context of the climate and energy transition. In 2025 and 2026, the Commission will revise the European Pillar of Social Rights (EPSR) action plan and, for the first time, will adopt an EU Anti-Poverty Strategy and implement the first European Affordable Housing Plan. These measures present unique opportunities to integrate social policies into the climate and energy transition, and to guarantee enjoyment of fundamental rights for all.


FRA opinion 6

In developing its new EPSR action plan and EU Anti-Poverty Strategy, and implementing the European Affordable Housing Plan, the EU should explicitly consider and address the climate and energy transition context, and specific vulnerabilities related to housing deprivation. These strategies should ensure a comprehensive approach to integrating social policies into the climate and energy transition so that they protect the right to adequate housing and access to energy for everyone.


Participation and stakeholder engagement in the energy transition is often a one-off exercise and is not inclusive

Participation and stakeholder engagement in the development of relevant climate and energy policies are required by law, including by the Aarhus Convention, the Governance Regulation, the EED, and also by national laws in Member States. In most cases, engagement with relevant stakeholders is provided for only in the preparatory phases of policy frameworks. It is very rare at later stages, such as during the monitoring and evaluation phases of programmes and mechanisms. Specific safeguards for including the views of different groups or regions are often absent, or it is unclear how stakeholders’ inputs were taken into account in the design and implementation of policies and programmes.


FRA opinion 7

Member States should ensure meaningful public participation in the design and implementation of climate and energy policies. They should consult relevant stakeholders, ensuring transparent and inclusive processes that enable meaningful engagement, with adequate consultation methods adapted to the specific situations of different stakeholders, and sufficient time to contribute. Contributions of stakeholders and the public should be taken into account in decision-making on energy efficiency policies or programmes as far as possible, and the public should be duly informed about how the results of the consultation were ultimately taken into account.


Lack of transparency and information for complaint mechanisms hinder access to justice

Access to justice and effective remedy is a right protected under the Charter, and in environmental matters under the Aarhus Convention. It also underpins a HRBA. FRA’s research has revealed unintended negative side effects of some of the energy renovation programmes, such as inflated market prices for construction materials, services, rent or a windfall profit by private enterprises participating in the programmes, and delivery of poor-quality work. Complaint mechanisms exist in all Member States, but the lack of transparency and limited information regarding the complaint proceedings, along with inconsistent approaches, hinder access to these mechanisms in practice. Although the administrative review or judicial proceedings are possible, the access to justice is complicated by the very technical legal language, the costs of proceedings and lack of information.

Furthermore, while in some Member States the national or regional human rights institutions provide support for people in energy poverty, FRA research highlights the limited role and involvement of equality bodies and national human rights institutions. This is often due to limited mandates or insufficient resources. If strengthened, these bodies could further support beneficiaries of programmes in accessing justice and effective remedy.


FRA opinion 8

Pursuant to their obligations under the Charter and the Aarhus Convention, Member States should establish independent, transparent and accessible complaints mechanisms that are available in the context of climate and energy interventions and programmes. Member States are called upon to strengthen the role for national human rights institutions and equality bodies with adequate mandates, expertise and resources to support access to justice and effective remedy in the context of climate and energy measures.


Need for integrated and systematic monitoring and data collection for a just climate and energy transition

Transparency and accountability are key operational principles of a HRBA, which should apply at all stages of the design, implementation and transparent monitoring of energy efficiency measures to ensure effectiveness and social acceptance of the green transition. The EU better regulation guidelines call for evidence-based lawmaking and monitoring of the implementation of EU legislation. Human rights indicators are essential for the implementation of human rights standards and commitments and to support policy formulation, impact assessments and transparency. The better regulation guidelines require that a clear link between objectives and indicators be established.

FRA’s research shows that that there is currently no comprehensive monitoring framework to evaluate the impact of environmental factors or policies on fundamental rights at the EU level. This report shows that there are several monitoring mechanisms and indicators to track the implementation and progress on the implementation of the European Green Deal and the EPSR, but these are not well aligned and therefore cannot effectively capture the fundamental rights impacts of climate and energy transition measures. Furthermore, at both the EU and national levels, the indicator systems lack disaggregation and cannot reflect potential fundamental rights risks and the impact of these measures on groups in vulnerable situations, such as people with disabilities, those from a minority background, children and young people and people with intersecting characteristics (e.g. older women and children with chronic health issues).


FRA opinion 9

The EU and its Member States should include relevant and disaggregated data on socioeconomic and fundamental rights impacts when measuring and reporting on progress towards climate targets through measures taken as part of the climate and energy transition. Reports and data should be timely and made publicly available and take into account people and regions in situations of vulnerability and the impact on specific fundamental rights. In the absence of quantitative data, qualitative assessment should be used. FRA could support the Commission in developing guidance on specific fundamental rights indicators to help Member States meaningfully incorporate fundamental rights into their climate and energy policy planning, implementation, monitoring and to report on them systematically in the NECPRs, SCPs and NBRPs.


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Climate change and environmental protection
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Environmental and social sustainability
15
January
2025

Towards a fundamental rights-compliant European Green Deal

Climate change affects the daily lives of everyone in the EU and has significant environmental, economic, social and health impacts. To tackle this, the European Green Deal was adopted in 2019. This report examines the Green Deal from a fundamental rights perspective, with the aim of protecting the right to a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment for all. It highlights the lack of fundamental rights in EU climate policy and the need to incorporate these rights into future legislation. It also considers how applying a human-rights-based approach to climate policy could support a fair and inclusive transition.
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