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          • 1 - Човешко достойнство
          • 2 - Право на живот
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          • 4 - Забрана на изтезанията и на нечовешкото или унизително отношение или наказание
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        • Дял II: Свободи
          • 6 - Право на свобода и сигурност
          • 7 - Зачитане на личния и семейния живот
          • 8 - Защита на личните данни
          • 9 - Право на встъпване в брак и право на създаване на семейство
          • 10 - Свобода на мисълта, съвестта и религията
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          • 19 - Защита в случай на принудително отвеждане, експулсиране и екстрадиране
        • Дял III: Равенство
          • 20 - Равенство пред закона
          • 21 - Недискриминация
          • 22 - Културно, религиозно и езиково многообразие
          • 23 - Равенство между жените и мъжете
          • 24 - Права на детето
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          • 26 - Интеграция на хората с увреждания
        • Дял IV: Солидарност
          • 27 - Право на информиране и консултиране на работниците в предприятието
          • 28 - Право на колективни преговори и действия
          • 29 - Право на достъп до услугите за намиране на работа
          • 30 - Защита при неоснователно уволнение
          • 31 - Справедливи и равни условия на труд
          • 32 - Забрана на детския труд и защита на работещите младежи
          • 33 - Семеен и професионален живот
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          • 35 - Закрила на здравето
          • 36 - Достъп до услугите от общ икономически интерес
          • 37 - Опазване на околната среда
          • 38 - Защита на потребителите
        • Дял V: Гражданство
          • 39 - Право на гражданите да избират и да бъдат избирани в изборите за Европейския парламент
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          • 49 - Принципи на законност и пропорционалност на престъплението и наказанието
          • 50 - Право на всеки да не бъде съден или наказван два пъти за едно и също престъпление
        • Дял VII: Общи pазпоредби
          • 51 - Приложно поле
          • 52 - Обхват и тълкуване на правата и принципите
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    • Правосъдие, права на жертвите и съдебно сътрудничество
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    Хартата на основните права на Европейския съюз
    • Какво представляват основните права?
    • What is the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights?
    • Преамбюл
    • Дял I: Достойнство
      • 1 - Човешко достойнство
      • 2 - Право на живот
      • 3 - Право на неприкосновеност на личността
      • 4 - Забрана на изтезанията и на нечовешкото или унизително отношение или наказание
      • 5 - Забрана на робството и на принудителния труд
    • Дял II: Свободи
      • 6 - Право на свобода и сигурност
      • 7 - Зачитане на личния и семейния живот
      • 8 - Защита на личните данни
      • 9 - Право на встъпване в брак и право на създаване на семейство
      • 10 - Свобода на мисълта, съвестта и религията
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      • 26 - Интеграция на хората с увреждания
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      • 29 - Право на достъп до услугите за намиране на работа
      • 30 - Защита при неоснователно уволнение
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      • 32 - Забрана на детския труд и защита на работещите младежи
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      • 35 - Закрила на здравето
      • 36 - Достъп до услугите от общ икономически интерес
      • 37 - Опазване на околната среда
      • 38 - Защита на потребителите
    • Дял V: Гражданство
      • 39 - Право на гражданите да избират и да бъдат избирани в изборите за Европейския парламент
      • 40 - Право на гражданите да избират и да бъдат избирани в общинските избори
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      • 49 - Принципи на законност и пропорционалност на престъплението и наказанието
      • 50 - Право на всеки да не бъде съден или наказван два пъти за едно и също престъпление
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  • Fundamental rights and housing in the EU’s climate and energy transition
Cover with title and image showing elderly couple with blankets around their shoulders sitting in front of  radiator and holding a energy bill in their hand.
AdobeStock@Solarisys
29
January
2026

Fundamental rights and housing in the EU’s climate and energy transition

Just and green transition
Environmental and social sustainability
Making homes energy efficient and equipping them with clean energy can help the EU to reach its climate and energy goals. These measures improve living conditions and support fighting energy poverty, but they can also compromise affordability and displace low-income families. This report looks at housing renovation and clean energy installation programmes and wider EU climate and energy transition policies. It analyses their impact on fundamental rights. It finds that measures often inadvertently exclude people or risk exacerbating existing inequalities. Climate and social policies must comply with fundamental rights obligations. This report builds on FRA’s 2025 publication: Towards a fundamental rights-compliant European Green Deal.
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  • Key findings and FRA opinions
    • Integrating fundamental rights into the climate and energy transition
      • FRA opinion 1
    • Strengthening fundamental rights safeguards in designing and implementing energy renovation policies
      • FRA opinion 2
      • FRA opinion 3
    • The lack of equal access to renovation measures impacts the right to housing
      • FRA opinion 4
    • Protecting the rights of tenants in energy renovations
      • FRA opinion 5
    • People confronted with housing deprivation are at risk of being left behind in the climate and energy transition
      • FRA opinion 6
    • Participation and stakeholder engagement in the energy transition is often a one-off exercise and is not inclusive
      • FRA opinion 7
    • Lack of transparency and information for complaint mechanisms hinder access to justice
      • FRA opinion 8
    • Need for integrated and systematic monitoring and data collection for a just climate and energy transition
      • FRA opinion 9
  • Introduction
  • 1. Access to energy and the right to housing in the climate and energy transition
    • 1.1 International framework on access to affordable and sustainable energy
    • 1.2 The link between the right to housing and sustainability
    • 1.3 Energy as an essential service in the European Union’s framework
      • 1.3.1 Addressing energy poverty to ensure health and an adequate standard of living
      • 1.3.2 Right of access to energy – including renewable energy – and users’ rights
    • 1.4 Energy renovations for achieving affordable and sustainable housing in the European Union
    • 1.5 Conclusion
  • 2. Fundamental rights in the European Union climate and energy governance
    • 2.1 Fundamental rights in the National Energy and Climate Plans
      • 2.1.1 Equality and non-discrimination in national energy and climate plans
      • 2.1.2 Gender equality
      • 2.1.3 Vulnerability and equal access to energy
      • 2.1.4 Access to affordable housing
    • 2.2 National Energy and Climate Progress Reports
    • 2.3 Conclusion
  • 3. Non-discrimination and leaving no one behind in the energy transition
    • 3.1 Equal access to renovation and energy transition measures
      • 3.1.1 Target groups and access criteria
      • 3.1.2 Tenure status and renovations: exclusion of tenants
      • 3.1.3 Support measures essential for ensuring equal access to the programmes in practice
      • 3.1.4 Funding is necessary to ensure access for people with lower incomes
    • 3.2 Energy poverty and attention to people in situations of vulnerability
      • 3.2.1 Risks and prevalence of energy poverty in the European Union
      • 3.2.2 Tackling energy poverty among people in vulnerable situations
    • 3.3 Conclusion
  • 4. Participation and stakeholder engagement in the energy transition
    • 4.1 Ensuring the right to information: transparency and awareness
    • 4.2 Participation and stakeholder engagement
    • 4.3 Conclusion
  • 5. Accountability: effective structures for fundamental-rights-compliant energy policy implementation
    • 5.1 Fundamental-rights-compliant funding and finances
    • 5.2 Monitoring and data collection
    • 5.3 Access to justice and complaints mechanisms
      • 5.3.1 Complaint and review mechanisms in energy renovation programmes lack consistency and transparency
      • 5.3.2 The role of ombudsperson institutions, equality bodies, national human rights institutions and other stakeholders
    • 5.4 Conclusion
  • Conclusions
  • Annex 1 – Methodology
  • Acronyms and abbreviations
  • About this publication


Introduction

Amid soaring energy prices and the cost-of-living crisis, 9.2% of Europeans in 2024 experienced energy poverty. This put the effective exercise of the fundamental rights at risk for many. These risks are not evenly distributed in society. For example, older people, women, people with disabilities, people with lower incomes, and those with a diverse ethnic or migrant background are disproportionately negatively affected. Rising energy prices are further compounded by the EU housing crisis: housing prices have increased on average by 48 % in less than 10 years between 2015 and 2023.

The right to housing and access to energy are preconditions to the effective enjoyment of many other fundamental rights, including the right to health. The EPSR Action Plan highlights the links between addressing energy poverty and ensuring access to affordable quality housing, particularly for medium- and low-income households. The Commission Recommendation on energy poverty (C/2023/2407) stresses the need to protect vulnerable households from higher housing costs related to renovations, including protecting tenants from evictions in line with Principle 19 of the EPSR. A recent Joint Research Centre (JRC) brief highlights the connections between housing quality and affordability and energy poverty, and the need for the EU to tackle the dual challenge of affordable and energy-efficient housing. Access to adequate housing has become simply unreachable in some Member States and for some groups.

These risks frequently coincide with those posed by the climate crisis itself: people living in inadequate housing, people experiencing poverty, and those in other vulnerable situations or marginalised groups are more often exposed to the negative effects of climate change. In this context, energy renovations of residential buildings are key measures at the intersection of the climate, energy and housing crises. Decarbonising heating and cooling systems and ensuring energy efficiency of the existing building stock is an important element for meeting the EU climate mitigation objectives. Buildings are responsible for 34 % of all EU energy-related greenhouse gas emissions, 60 % of air pollutants (PM2.5) from energy use emissions, and 40 % of energy consumptionin the EU. On top of this, 75 % of all buildings in the EU are energy inefficient. The European Environment Agency (EEA) European Climate Risk Assessment finds that there is substantial risk to human wellbeing from climate change impacts on residential and non-residential buildings in the near term (2021–2040) and mid-term (2041–2060) (p. 189). Renovations are therefore also relevant for strengthening climate resilience, implementing climate adaptation measures at the building and neighbourhood levels, and protecting health and wellbeing in homes across the EU.

As the EU continues its path towards net-zero and clean energy, required by the European Green Deal, the European Climate Law and the Governance Regulation, a series of related legislative measures advancing the EU climate and energy agenda are set to take effect between 2025 and 2028. Among them are the Emissions Trading System for Buildings and Transport (ETS-2), the Social Climate Fund Regulation, the Energy Efficiency Directive (recast), the Renewable Energy Directive (recast) and the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (recast). The EU is also continuing the implementation of the Renovation Wave. These initiatives aim to significantly reduce GHG emissions, improve energy efficiency and address social impacts such as energy poverty. The Commission has also presented the Affordable Energy Action Plan, and the first European Affordable Housing Plan. These measures set out incentives for the energy transition of buildings and create opportunities to address energy poverty and improve the living conditions in homes across the EU: ensuring insulated, energy-efficient homes with access to clean energy.

Against this background, energy renovations offer opportunities to strengthen the protection and fulfilment of fundamental rights of everyone living in the EU, and especially for those in the most vulnerable situations and at risk of poverty and social exclusion. At the same time, they may also have adverse effects on fundamental rights if these are not adequately safeguarded.

Firstly, energy-efficient buildings equipped with clean energy installations enable and support access to affordable and clean energy.

Secondly, energy renovations contribute to climate change mitigation by limiting harmful GHG emissions and air pollutants. They also support climate adaptation and resilience. For example, better insulated homes offer more protection from extreme external temperatures. At the same time, the extraction of minerals needed for the transition to clean energy poses environmental and human rights risks. Housing construction and renovations come with their own carbon footprint and other environmental risks.

Thirdly, renovations carried out in the context of decarbonisation lead to an improvement in the overall standards of houses, which contributes to an adequate standard of housing. At the same time, renovations may lead to increased property values and rents, further undermining housing affordability – in particular for persons with low- and middle-incomes, tenants and other people in different vulnerable situations and contexts.

Energy renovations should be therefore implemented in a fundamental-rights-compliant way, especially for those who are in situations of vulnerability and are most at risk. FRA’s previous report Towards a fundamental-rights-compliant European Green Deal argues that fundamental rights are not systematically integrated into the European Green Deal’s policies, leading to potential fundamental rights ‘blind spots’. It recalls the legal obligations of the EU and the Member States to ensure compliance with the Charter as an integral part of the development of future climate and environmental legislation and policies. It highlights the necessity for a human-rights-based approach in the EU’s green transition.

The findings and analysis of this report build on the foregoing arguments, focusing specifically on energy transition measures, decarbonisation, energy renovations and energy poverty projects in the context of residential buildings and housing. It explores how these measures may directly and indirectly impact on fundamental rights in the EU.

In 2024, FRA collected data through its Franet research network with a focus on the priority strand of the European Green Deal of clean, affordable and secure energy, and specifically on measures addressing energy renovations in residential buildings and/or energy poverty, to explore fundamental rights implications, challenges, gaps and promising practices. The following qualitative fieldwork research in 10 Member States (Belgium, Czechia, Estonia, Germany, Greece, France, Poland, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden) provides data on projects or programmes targeting decarbonisation, energy efficiency and energy poverty in these countries. The report presents the main findings, including an analysis of the relevant EU climate and energy legislation, and national energy and climate plans across the EU-27 and three FRA observer countries (Albania, North Macedonia and Serbia). The report features the identified promising practices (in policy and practice) throughout Chapters 3–5.

The report is addressed at policymakers, experts, practitioners and civil society organisations involved in the design and implementation of decarbonisation, energy-efficiency renovations and energy poverty responses at the EU, national and local levels.

Following the core principles of a human-rights-based approach, the report is structured as follows. Chapter 1 discusses the fundamental rights obligations and considerations in the context of the EU’s climate and energy transition. Chapter 2 presents findings on how these are reflected in the NECPs. Chapter 3 considers the principle of ‘leave no one behind’ in the energy transition, focusing on issues of equal access to renovation and energy transition measures, attention to people in situations of vulnerability and energy poverty. Chapter 4 analyses meaningful inclusion in policy processes and implementation, exploring transparency, communication and meaningful participation and stakeholder engagement. Chapter 5 addresses accountability and governance of energy and renovation policies and programmes, including monitoring and data collection and complaints mechanisms, and analyses how these structures can support fundamental-rights-compliant policy implementation.


Key findings and FRA opinions1. Access to energy and the right to housing in the climate and energy transition
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Climate change and environmental protection
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Environmental and social sustainability
15
January
2025

Towards a fundamental rights-compliant European Green Deal

Climate change affects the daily lives of everyone in the EU and has significant environmental, economic, social and health impacts. To tackle this, the European Green Deal was adopted in 2019. This report examines the Green Deal from a fundamental rights perspective, with the aim of protecting the right to a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment for all. It highlights the lack of fundamental rights in EU climate policy and the need to incorporate these rights into future legislation. It also considers how applying a human-rights-based approach to climate policy could support a fair and inclusive transition.
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