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      • 4 - Il-projbizzjoni tat-tortura jew tal-pieni jew trattamenti inumani jew degradanti
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  • Enforcing consumer rights to combat greenwashing
7
March
2024

Enforcing consumer rights to combat greenwashing

Consumer protection
Justice, victims’ rights and judicial cooperation
Environmental and social sustainability
Tackling greenwashing is an issue where human rights, consumer rights and climate goals align. Companies use greenwashing to convince people to buy products that are not always as environmentally friendly as they claim to be. They mislead consumers and harm the environment. This report shows how a human rights approach can combat greenwashing. It is based on consultations with experts in 10 Member States. The report identifies gaps in existing laws and enforcement. It includes case studies of consumers seeking remedies for misleading environmental claims.
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  • Key findings
    • A human rights approach to environmental protection empowers consumers
    • Environmental protection – the advantages and limitations of consumer laws
    • Adopting more precise legal frameworks to ensure uniform interpretation
    • Ensuring effective enforcement of rights
      • Dissuasive sanctions
      • Rules on burden of proof and disclosure of information
    • Enhancing cohesion of the supervisory system
    • Representative action and procedural rights of civil society organisations
    • Significance of awareness-raising
  • Introduction
    • Human rights implications of ‘greenwashing’
    • Legal and policy background
      • EU law on consumer and environmental protection
      • Recent EU developments addressing greenwashing
      • EU commitment to international instruments
      • Due diligence and reporting
    • Methodology
    • Structure
  • 1. Consumers’ right to reliable information and environmental impact
    • 1.1 Combating greenwashing as a misleading commercial practice
      • 1.1.1. Applying rules on misleading practices in cases of greenwashing
      • 1.1.2. Enforcement
    • 1.2. Carbon-neutral and carbon ‘offsetting’ claims
    • 1.3. Combating greenwashing through advertising regulations
      • 1.3.1. Judicial and administrative measures
      • 1.3.2. Non-binding self-regulatory codes
    • 1.4. Labels and certification
    • 1.5. Aarhus Convention provisions relevant to consumer protection
    • 1.6. Due diligence and reporting obligations
  • 2. Legal requirements for enforcing collective consumer and environmental rights
    • 2.1. Collective consumer actions relating to the environment
      • 2.1.1. Enforcement under general consumer law
      • 2.1.2. Environmental claims regulated by specific legislation
      • 2.1.3. Environmental claims dispersed in different laws
    • 2.2. Legal standing in collective actions relating to the environment
    • 2.3. Requirement of harm and possibility of actio popularis
    • 2.4. Burden of proof in collective consumer and environmental claims
  • 3. Ways forward
    • 3.1. Ensuring effective enforcement of rights
    • 3.2. Enhancing cohesion of the supervisory system
    • 3.3. Representative action and procedural rights of civil society organisations
    • 3.4. Training and awareness-raising
    • 3.5. Guidance for business
    • 3.6. Incorporating sustainability into consumer protection policy
    • 3.7 Due diligence and reporting
  • About this publication


3. Ways forward

Addressing greenwashing aligns with both the Charter’s guarantee of consumer protection (Article 38) and its provision on environmental protection (Article 37). The empowerment of consumers as rights holders can help advance environmental sustainability and climate-related policy goals.

One way to improve environmental protection is to strengthen consumer rights, for example by facilitating the enforcement of regulations for unfair commercial practices, especially at the EU level. This would hold businesses accountable for their environmental claims and actions and prevent consumers from being misled by false or exaggerated statements, with potentially negative impacts on their fundamental rights.

There have been ongoing important developments in this area. In light of the gaps and obstacles identified in this report at both the national and the EU levels, relevant legal and policy measures should be implemented without delay to provide adequate protection.

Green claims such as ‘CO2-reduced’ or ‘climate-friendly’ should be based on scientific criteria informing the development and use of relevant certifications. The prevention of misleading green claims should be prioritised, because once such claims are made it takes time for legal action to take effect and for misleading claims to be prohibited. During this time, the statement may continue to influence consumers’ perceptions. This approach will also enable companies to steer clear of unnecessary legal disputes. To prevent the misuse of sustainability claims as a marketing tactic, an accreditation system should be established at the national and EU levels.

The use of carbon neutrality claims and the compensation measures for emissions (carbon offsetting) should be banned or limited in line with the Commission’s proposal to prohibit carbon or climate neutrality claims if these are not supported by clear, objective and verifiable commitments by the trader. They should also be supported by a monitoring system. Companies should be required to demonstrate that they are making investments to reduce their emissions.

An explicit prohibition of unsubstantiated ‘carbon-neutral’ claims as inherently misleading would facilitate proving infringements of consumer rights involving environmental protection.


3.1. Ensuring effective enforcement of rights

Administrative and judicial decisions against greenwashing should systematically include sanctions in addition to ordering cessations of misleading green claims. Sanctions must be effective and dissuasive, and for that purpose they must not only deprive the trader of any benefit derived from using the misleading green claim in question, but also be proportionate to the size and turnover of the company. With respect to access to evidence, denying access to information for strategic or industrial reasons should not be allowed in matters relating to corporate social responsibility. In addition, access to information could be improved by restricting the exceptions pertaining to industrial confidentiality only to instances where it is deemed necessary, and creating a process for interim relief if access to environmental information is refused.

The rules on burden of proof should alleviate excessive hardships for consumers while ensuring that false environmental claims cannot be made easily.

FRA activity - FRA opinion 1 in Business and Human Rights – Access to remedy (2020)

Drawing on existing EU law in regard to shifting the burden of proof, the EU should encourage Member States to consider shifting the burden of proof in cases where the fundamental rights of individuals are infringed by corporate activity. This should apply to causality between the company’s conduct and damage, as well as to proving liability for the supply chain. The burden of proof should be shifted once it has been established prima facie that a business has breached a statutory duty. Those found to have violated a legal norm should be required to prove that ensuing damages are not the result of this violation. The same should apply to companies who fail to apply due diligence to their supply chain.

The EU should facilitate the development of clear minimum standards on disclosing information by companies. To ensure the application of the jurisprudential principle of equality of arms, companies should have an obligation, in any dispute against them, to disclose all their documents that relate to the incident, in order to ensure that anyone affected can access information that is necessary to establish a claim.

Source: FRA, Business and Human Rights – Access to remedy, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2020.


3.2. Enhancing cohesion of the supervisory system

Greater cohesion and standardisation in the supervisory system at both the national and the EU levels would be beneficial for upholding consumer rights.

Rules regarding administrative enforcement of consumer rights should not afford excessive discretion to administrative bodies regarding examination of a complaint, or the possibility to appeal a decision, which could result in depriving consumers of effective access to a remedy.

Moreover, to make the enforcement of consumer protection laws more effective, the competent authorities need to be adequately resourced, and collaboration with civil society and government administration needs to be promoted.

The EU should consider improving consistency and complementarity between its various relevant legislative initiatives such as the corporate sustainability reporting directive (CSRD), the proposal for a corporate sustainability due diligence directive (CSDDD) and various reporting obligations.

Some experts also suggest that the creation of an independent environmental authority and courts specialised in environmental matters could help uphold such cohesion and ensure that the requisite expertise could be relied on.

The French Senate’s report recommends strengthening the powers of the Directorate-General for Competition Policy, Consumer Affairs and Fraud Control and promoting synergy between various agencies and administrations. The Court of Auditors recommends strengthening the governance of the consumer movement and better collaboration between accredited associations and administrations.

The Dutch Minister’s letter to parliament on building blocks of corporate social responsibility legislation recommends establishing an EU supervisory body to make it easier for consumers to report harmful business behaviour, in particular regarding cross-border corporations. In the context of greenwashing, this would also benefit the environment.


3.3. Representative action and procedural rights of civil society organisations

Strengthening the legal capacity of consumer and environmental organisations to hold governments and business to account can improve the protection of consumer rights and environmental interests. Moreover, it would be important to expand the eligibility of organisations to take legal action, including actions in the general interest (actio popularis), and broaden the scope of consumer group actions. Such organisations should also be able to intervene in judicial proceedings in support of consumers (e.g. as amici curiae) in individual lawsuits.

While the primary legal responsibility remains with relevant state authorities as duty bearers under EU human rights law, improving the management of litigation risk and supporting civil society to address the growing number of environmental claims by businesses is essential in light of the proliferation of environmental claims by businesses and limited resources of NGOs to exercise their watchdog role in this respect.

FRA activity - FRA opinions 2 and 3 in Business and Human Rights – Access to remedy (2020)

FRA opinion 2

The EU and Member States should provide for effective collective redress and representative action beyond consumer protection to other cases of business-related human rights abuse.

[...]

The EU and Member States should ensure that legislation providing for representative action on behalf of persons affected by the actions of a business allows for legal standing of civil society organisations acting in the public interest, as well as statutory human rights organisations, such as national human rights institutions, Ombuds institutions or equality bodies.

FRA opinion 3

The EU and its Member States are encouraged to ensure adequate funding and legal protection for civil society organisation (CSOs) to enable them to effectively fulfil their role in supporting victims of business-related abuses and monitoring business compliance with human rights standards.

Member States should ensure that the criteria for obtaining qualified status by CSOs in order to be eligible for legal standing or obtain financial help from the state are clearly defined and not excessive.

Source: FRA, Business and Human Rights – Access to remedy, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2020.


3.4. Training and awareness-raising

The public authorities' lack of awareness of the significance of greenwashing in the context of environmental protection and of applicable legislation is often a greater obstacle than substantive or procedural gaps in the regulatory or enforcement system. It is important to provide training for administrative authorities, judges and lawyers on environmental aspects of consumer laws, and in particular regarding interpretation of misleading practices in the context of greenwashing.

Governments should fulfil their obligation to promote human rights and be proactive in educating consumers about their rights regarding misleading environmental advertising in order to empower them to take action. This includes campaigns to raise awareness of greenwashing and providing information on how to report it. Complaints and decisions of administrative bodies and courts should be published on the websites of relevant institutions and in professional journals, and also on company websites.

Without prejudice to the obligations of the Member States in this regard, and subject to the availability of adequate resources, national human rights institutions can play a significant role not only by engaging more actively in the development of relevant legal and policy measures, but also by developing their expertise on both consumer rights and the impact of climate change and the green transition [44] See also FRA, Strong and Effective National Human Rights Institutions – challenges, promising practices and opportunities, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2020.
.


3.5. Guidance for business

Businesses need guidance and support to comply with national and international legal norms. It is important to provide guidance for businesses to comply with environmental obligations and encourage sustainable behaviour in line with the increase in reporting requirements.

With the increasing number of reporting requirements at both the national and the EU levels, coherence, complementarity and easily understandable guidance are essential to ensure that companies focus on avoiding or reducing negative impacts rather than only reporting them. It is important to include small and medium-sized companies in these efforts, and fair commercial practices must be considered from a competition law perspective.


3.6. Incorporating sustainability into consumer protection policy

Consumer protection laws are still often seen as effective only when a product presents a physical danger to the consumer. Legislation, however, should also consider any negative impact of a product on the environment, which also affects consumers. The relevant legislation should consider that environmental protection is a fundamental rights issue and connected to the broader protection of consumer rights.

Sustainability criteria, including environmental impact through the whole life cycle of a product, should be defined and explicitly included in warranty law. Warranty periods should be extended for durable products and the burden of proof should be on manufacturers, who should also be held accountable for ensuring durable product designs. Moreover, penalties for planned obsolescence should be strengthened. Planned obsolescence is defined as a practice in which products are intentionally designed to fail after a certain age or amount of use, which can lead to increased waste and overconsumption.

To incentivise a circular economy, which involves sharing, leasing, reusing, repairing, refurbishing and recycling products, the Commission presented the circular economy action plan in March 2020 as one of the main building blocks of the European Green Deal, Europe’s new agenda for sustainable growth. The circular economy action plan aims to promote more sustainable product design, reduce waste and empower consumers. The Commission’s proposals on ecodesign and the consumer empowerment directive are crucial for promoting ecological change in the EU.

Transparent sustainability labelling is essential to help consumers make informed choices. Labelling should be regulated by independent authorities to ensure the reliability, trustworthiness and comprehensiveness of the information provided. Quality labels should employ consistent criteria and be independently monitored, for example through a pre-approval system, such as the one proposed by the European Consumer Organisation, for green claims and labels, which would both help prevent greenwashing and promote those businesses with better environmental and substantiality performance.

3.7 Due diligence and reporting

A human rights-based approach to environmental protection and corporate climate accountability is rooted in the concept of human rights due diligence defined in the UNGPs and reflected in the proposal for a corporate sustainability due diligence directive (CSDDD).

In this context, laws pertaining to due diligence, such as the proposed CSDDD, could play an important role in protecting the rights of consumers and increasing the proportion of sustainable production in the economy.

According to the UNGPs, the due diligence process should include assessing actual and potential human rights impacts, integrating and acting on the findings, tracking responses and communicating how impacts are addressed. It is imperative to ensure that due diligence regulations are comprehensible and practical: a balance must be struck between robust and effective regulation and minimal administrative encumbrance.

Based on FRA’s work in the area of business and human rights and the views of experts consulted for this report, the following aspects should be considered in the implementation phase of the proposed CSDDD:

  • coverage of all companies operating in the EU internal market;
  • binding regulations for corporate responsibility along supply chains at the national, EU and international levels;
  • provisions ensuring effective access to justice;
  • the obligation to comply with all internationally recognised human and labour rights and climate and environmental standards, as established by relevant international institutions, such as the Council of Europe, the UN, the EU (including the European Environment Agency) and the International Labour Organization;
  • establishment of civil liability (and effective remedies) for companies for due diligence violations;
  • establishment of independent monitoring institutions and effective sanctions and penalties for violations;
  • public accessibility of relevant companies’ reports.

 

2. Legal requirements for enforcing collective consumer and environmental rightsAbout this publication

Country Research

05 March 2024

Business and human rights: promoting environmental protection through enforcement of consumer rights

These documents were commissioned under contract as background material for comparative analysis by the FRA for the project ‘Business and human rights: promoting environmental protection through enforcement of consumer rights’. The information and views contained in the documents do not necessarily reflect the views or the official position of the FRA. The documents are made publicly available for transparency and information purposes only and do not constitute legal advice or legal opinion.
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