Under the Treaties, the core values of the EU are respect for fundamental and human rights, the rule of law and democracy [9]
 Consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union – Title I – Common provisions – Article 2 (OJ C 236, 7.8.2012, p. 17).
. Civil society has an important role to play in upholding these values. In its 2024 Rule of Law Report, the European Commission reaffirmed that civil society organisations and human rights defenders foster the rule of law in practice [10]
 Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions – 2024 rule of law report – The rule of law situation in the European Union, COM(2024) 800 final of 24 July 2024, p. 4.
. In the 2022 report Europe’s Civil Society: Still under pressure, FRA examined the many ways in which civil society contributes to a rule of law culture [11]
 FRA, Europe’s Civil Society: Still under pressure – Update 2022, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2022.
. As concerns have expanded from the state of the rule of law in Europe to the state of European democracy and democracy worldwide, attention has also focused on the ways in which a vibrant civil society contributes to the strength of democracy and its resilience.

It is important to note that what exactly is meant by ‘civil society’ can, however, differ, as different organisations and policy documents use the term with various meanings (see What is civil society?). Within this report, the term is used in a broad sense, with the relevant actors, such as civil society organisations, specified where a narrowing of the concept is merited.

A further consideration is that not all actors within civil society share or promote the values that underpin the EU, and some may even act to attack or undermine them. Similarly with the EU strategy for civil society, this report covers accountable, independent and transparent CSOs that function according to respect for human dignity, democracy, equality, the rule of law and fundamental rights and freedoms [12]
 Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee Of The Regions – EU strategy for civil society, COM(2025) 790 final of 12 November 2025, point 2. See also Regulation 2024/2509 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 September 2024 on the financial rules applicable to the general budget of the Union (recast) (OJ L, 2024/2509, 26.9.2024), recitals 10 and 113.
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Additionally, there is an overlap between different civil society actors and the concept of human rights defenders (see What are human rights defenders?).

It is also important to note that not all CSOs are HRDs, as CSOs may be involved in many different areas of life. Depending on their purpose and mandate, they may not fulfil all roles detailed below, and may face different challenges based on how these roles are perceived or affect public authorities and others in society.

Civil society as an essential component of a functioning democracy and catalyst for public engagement

As recognised by the European Court of Human Rights, ‘where society functions in a healthy manner, the participation of citizens in the democratic process is to a large extent achieved through belonging to associations in which they may integrate with each other and pursue common objectives’ [15]
 ECtHR, 17 February 2004, Gorzelik and others v. Poland, ECLI:CE:ECHR:2004:0217JUD004415898.
. CSOs serve as catalysts for civic engagement and active participation in public affairs, providing opportunities for meaningful engagement and nurturing a ‘vibrant ecosystem of civic participation essential for the functioning of democracy’ [16]
 Tamang, S., ‘The role of civil society in strengthening democracy’, International Journal of Creative Research Thoughts (IJCRT), Vol. 12, Issue 2, 2 February 2024, IJ Publication, Ahmedabad, pp. 10–17.
. Recent efforts to define democratic principles by the Council of Europe and the European Law Institute have reaffirmed that civil society is a prerequisite for a functioning European democracy [17]
 Council of Europe, ‘Reykjavík Principles for Democracy – Appendix III of the Rejkjavík Declaration’, Steering Committee on Democracy website, 16–17 May 2023; European Law Institute, Charter of Fundamental Principles of a European Democracy, Vienna, 22 July 2024.
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Civil society as a key channel for good lawmaking and building trust in public authorities

As recognised in the 2023 defence of democracy communication, an increasingly important way in which civil society engages in the democratic process is through its contribution to law- and policymaking (see Chapter 4). Today’s model of democracy goes beyond mere representation of citizens by members of legislative bodies and entails the understanding that public authorities should also consult directly with all stakeholders who may be affected by any policy or law. In line with the understanding of open government and good governance, civil society actors contribute through their expertise, including in fundamental rights and the rule of law. They advocate for the rights of minorities and other groups that otherwise might not have a strong political voice.

Civil society participation is part of good lawmaking, which also has a positive effect on trust between civil society and public authorities, increasing trust in the democratic institutions and processes that underlie our societies [18]
 Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on defence of democracy, COM(2023) 630 final of 12 December 2023; Council of the European Union: General Secretariat of the Council, ‘Presidency conclusions on strengthening EU democratic resilience’, 9463/25, Brussels, 27 May 2025; OSCE/ODIHR, Guidelines on Democratic Lawmaking for Better Laws, Warsaw, 2023, p. 3.
. Trust in public authorities is affected by a complex interplay of factors, some of which are directly linked to citizen engagement and participation. A sense of political agency, that is, the ability to influence political decisions and processes, and openness are crucial to the level of trust that people have in national governments. Ensuring that all people’s voices are heard and using better, transparent and verifiable evidence in decision making are key to improving trust [19]
 OECD, OECD Survey on Drivers of Trust in Public Institutions – 2024 results – Building trust in a complex policy environment, 2024, p. 12.
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Civil society as a watchdog

The role of CSOs as a watchdog for fundamental rights and the rule of law is also one of a watchdog for democracy. This is key for fighting corruption and securing accountability, and particularly important with the attention of governments increasingly focusing on security and defence. This role is highly valued by citizens. In the 2025 Special Eurobarometer 568, 42 % of the respondents considered exposing corruption as civil society’s most significant area of work, followed by defending individual rights (41 %), delivering services (39 %) and monitoring government action (28 %) [20]
 European Commission: Directorate-General for Justice and Consumers, Special Eurobarometer 568 – Protecting and promoting democracy – Report, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 25 November 2025, p. 81.
. For example, together with parliament, the courts and other independent oversight bodies, CSOs can help keep an eye on such fundamental issues of democracy as the prevention of abuse and misuse of surveillance technologies.

Civil society as part of the whole-of-society approach to resilience

Due to the increasingly volatile geopolitical landscape, civil society has also been recognised as an important factor in the whole-of-society approach that is needed for preparedness and societal resilience [21]
 Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee Of The Regions – EU strategy for civil society, COM(2025) 790 final of 12 November 2025, p. 4.
. The level of trust in public authorities and in democratic institutions is deemed key to citizens’ contribution and commitment to democratic resilience [22]
 Niinistö, S. (Special Adviser to the President of the European Commission), Safer Together – Strengthening Europe's civilian and military preparedness and readiness, Brussels, 30 October 2024, p. 13.
. Democratic resilience for its part is seen as vital for European security and thus ultimately for the future of the EU and its values as well [23]
 Council of the European Union: General Secretariat of the Council, ‘Presidency conclusions on strengthening EU democratic resilience’, 9463/25, Brussels, 27 May 2025, p. 5.
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Civil society combating disinformation and other forms of information disorder

The recent Special Eurobarometer 568 reveals that Europeans consider the most serious challenges to democracy in the European Union to be growing public distrust towards democratic institutions and processes, followed closely by foreign information manipulation, interference and disinformation, including in the context of elections, lack of transparency with regard to whether political content online is promoted through new technologies like artificial intelligence (AI), and declining opportunities for citizens to access information from independent and trustworthy media sources [24]
 European Commission: Directorate-General for Justice and Consumers, Special Eurobarometer 568 – Protecting and promoting democracy – Report, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 25 November 2025.
. This increases and underlines the need for a strong, pluralistic and independent media, but also for knowledgeable and critical consumers of information. Media literacy and critical thinking education can empower and enable citizens to hold power to account, and also to form opinions based on reliable information, in particular in the context of political debate and elections. The European Commission in its 2023 communication on defence of democracy includes the fight against disinformation as an important part of civil society’s contribution to combating challenges to democracy. More recently, in the context of general societal resilience and preparedness, it has been noted that CSOs can contribute through awareness-raising, fact-checking and working in cooperation with governments, media service providers and internet platforms. Together they can work to develop the digital and media literacy skills needed to combat disinformation and other forms of information manipulation [25]
 Niinistö, S. (Special Adviser to the President of the European Commission), Safer Together – Strengthening Europe's civilian and military preparedness and readiness, Brussels, 30 October 2024, p. 74.
. The European democracy shield initiative calls for the contribution of civil society in a new European Network of Fact-checkers, the rapid response system to identify FIMI for elections, the Stakeholder Platform of the new European Centre for Democratic Resilience and in efforts to improve media and digital literacy [26]
 Joint Communication to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions – European democracy shield: Empowering strong and resilient democracies, JOIN(2025) 791 final of 12 November 2025.
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